Cell Organelles

LS1101 : Introduction to Biology

Anindita Bhadra
E-mail: abhadra@iiserkol.ac.in

Cells Under a Microscope

A Generalized Cell

The Cell Membrane

The cell/plasma membrane is the thin nearly invisible structure that surrounds the
cytoplasm of the cell.
It also connects the endoplasmic reticulum, and the nuclear membrane.
In eukaryotic cells, organelles are bounded by plasma membranes.
The cell membrane encloses the cell, defines its boundaries, and maintains the
essential differences between the cytosol and the extracellular environment.
All biological membranes have a common general structure: each is a very thin
film of lipid and protein molecules, held together mainly by noncovalent
interactions.

The Cell Membrane

Proteins
Phospholipids

Phospholipids
Proteins

Cell membranes are dynamic, fluid

structures, and most of their
molecules are able to move about
in the plane of the membrane.
The fluid mosaic model of the cell
membrane was first developed by
S. J. Singer and G. L. Nicolson in
1972.

The Fluid Mosaic Model

Phosphate group with
double bonded oxygen

Hydrocarbon tails

Depending on the temperature and lipid composition, phospholipid bilayers may

transition between a gel (or more solid state) and a liquid (or more oil-like) state.

The Fluid Mosaic Model

In a living organism, the composition of the phospholipid bilayer is such that the
membrane is generally maintained in a liquid state, which maximizes diffusion of
proteins and the dynamic capabilities of the membrane.
The lipid molecules are arranged as a continuous double layer about 5 nm thick.
The lipid bilayer serves as a relatively impermeable barrier to the passage of most
water-soluble molecules.
Floating around in the cell membrane are different kinds of proteins. These are
generally globular proteins. They are not held in any fixed pattern but instead
float around in the phospholipid layer.

The Fluid Mosaic Model

Types of Proteins:

Functions of membrane proteins:

1. Integral: trans-membrane proteins;

span the hydrophobic interior
a. Channels
b. Carriers

1. Transport
2. Enzyme
3. Receptor sites
4. Intercellular junctions
5. Cell-cell recognition
6. Cytoskeletal and extracellular
matrix attachment

2. Peripheral: not embedded; attached

to the surface
a. Enzymatic activity
b. Structure

Other Molecules
Carbohydrates can be
associated with the exterior
surface of the membrane.
Cholesterol - stiffens the
membrane by connecting
phospholipids
Glycolipids - signal molecules
Glycoproteins - have an
attached chain of sugar
(antibodies)

Membrane Proteins
Channel Proteins: form small openings for molecules to
diffuse through
Carrier Proteins: regulate transport and diffusion
Receptor Proteins: molecular triggers that set off cell
responses (such as release of hormones or opening of
channel proteins)
Cell Recognition Proteins: Marker proteins that identify
the cell to other cells
Enzymatic Proteins: carry out metabolic reactions

Transport Proteins
Carrier proteins are peripharal proteins which do
not extend all the way through the membrane. They
bond and drag molecules through the bilipid layer
and release them on the opposite side, one at a time.

Channel proteins extend through the bilipid layer.

They form a pore through the membrane that can
move molecules in several ways, including diffusion,
which requires no energy.

Transport Proteins
Symports also use the process of diffusion. In this case
a molecule that is moving naturally into the cell through
diffusion is used to drag another molecule into the cell.
For example, glucose hitches a ride with sodium.

Some proteins actively use energy from the ATPs in the cell to drag molecules
from area of low concentration to areas of high concentration (working directly
against diffusion) an example of this is the sodium/potassium pump. Here the
energy of a phosphate (shown in red) is used to exchange sodium atoms for
potassium atoms.

Marker Proteins
Marker proteins extend across the cell membrane
and serve to identify the cell.
The immune system uses these proteins to tell
friendly cells from foreign invaders.
They are as unique as fingerprints.
They play an important role in organ transplants. If the marker proteins on a
transplanted organ are different from those of the original organ the body will
reject it as a foreign invader.

Endocytosis
An important group of peripheral membrane proteins are water-soluble
enzymes that associate with the polar head groups of membrane phospholipids.
One well-understood group of such enzymes are the phospholipases, which
hydrolyze various bonds in the head groups of phospholipids.
These enzymes have an important role in the degradation of damaged or aged
cell membranes.
Large molecules that are manufactured in the cell are released through the cell
membrane by the reverse process, called exocytosis.

Endocytosis
The cell membrane can also
engulf structures that are much
too large to fit through the
pores in the membrane proteins.
This process is known as
endocytosis.
In this process the membrane
itself wraps around the particle
and pinches off a vesicle inside
the cell.

Cell Organelles

LS1101 : Introduction to Biology

Anindita Bhadra
E-mail: abhadra@iiserkol.ac.in

The Cell Factory

The Cell Factory

The cell membrane provides the
boundary to the cell, and
regulates what enters or leaves
the cell.

The Cell Factory

The cytoplasm or cytosol is like
the factory floor, which houses
all the organelles.

The Cell Factory

The cytoskeleton is responsible for
maintaining the shape of the cell, like
the beams and pillars of a factory.

Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a system of protein filaments in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic
cell that gives the cell shape and the capacity for directed movement.
Intermediate filaments provide mechanical strength.
Microtubules determine the positions of membrane bound organelles and direct
intracellular transport.
Actin filaments determine the shape of the cells surface and are necessary for
whole-cell locomotion.
A large number of accessory proteins are associated with these filaments.

Cytoskeleton
Each type of cytoskeletal filament is constructed from smaller protein subunits.
The cell is able to build large cytoskeletal structures by the repetitive assembly of
large numbers of the small protein subunits.
Because these subunits are small, they can diffuse rapidly within cytoplasm,
whereas the assembled filaments cannot.
In this way, cells can undergo rapid structural reorganizations, disassembling
filaments at one site and reassembling them at another site far away

Cytoskeleton
Each type of cytoskeletal filament is constructed from smaller protein subunits.
The cell is able to build large cytoskeletal structures by the repetitive assembly of
large numbers of the small protein subunits.
Because these subunits are small, they can diffuse rapidly within cytoplasm,
whereas the assembled filaments cannot.
In this way, cells can undergo rapid structural reorganizations, disassembling
filaments at one site and reassembling them at another site far away

The Cell Factory

The endoplasmic reticulum is the
assembly line of the cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The ER consists of membranous channels that wind through the cytoplasm.
It is the transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications and
specific final destinations, as opposed to molecules that are destined to float
freely in the cytoplasm.
There are two types of ER, rough and smooth. Rough ER has ribosomes attached
to it, and smooth ER does not.
Rough ER produces proteins, smooth ER produces steroids.

The Cell Factory

The ribosomes are the workers working
on the assembly line of the cell.

Ribosomes
The ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis in the cell.
They are mostly attached to the ER, but some are also free, in the cytoplasm.
A ribosome, formed from two subunits locking together, functions to:
(1) Translate encoded information from the cell nucleus provided by messenger
ribonucleic acid (mRNA),
(2) Link together amino acids selected and collected from the cytoplasm by
transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA),
(3) Export the polypeptide produced to the cytoplasm where it will form a
functional protein.

Ribosomes
The proteins produced by the free ribosomes are mostly used within the cell,
while those produced by the ribosomes on the ER are transported out.
In a mammalian cell there can be as many as 10 million ribosomes.
Several ribosomes can be attached to the same mRNA strand, this structure is
called a polysome.
Ribosomes have only a temporary existence. When they have synthesised a
polypeptide the two sub-units separate and are either re-used or broken up.

Ribosomes
Ribosomes can join up amino acids at a rate of 200 per minute.
Ribosomes are organelles composed of ribosomal proteins (riboproteins) and
ribonucleic acids (ribonucleoproteins).
A eukaryotic ribosome is composed of ribosomal RNA and about 80 proteins
and has a molecular mass of about 4,200,000 Da.
Ribosomes are found in prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells, chloroplasts and
mitochondria.

Ribosomes
There are about 10 billion protein molecules in a mammalian cell and ribosomes
produce most of them.
The proteins and nucleic acids that form the ribosome sub-units are made in the
nucleolus and exported through nuclear pores into the cytoplasm.
The two sub-units are unequal in size and exist in this state until required for
use.
The larger sub-unit has mainly a catalytic function; the smaller sub-unit mainly a
decoding one.

The Cell Factory

The Golgi apparatus is the finishing and
packaging department of the cell.

The Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi apparatus looks similar to the ER. It is a set of 7 or 8 flattened
saccules between the ER and the cell membrane.
It is involved in the formation of lysosomes and other enzyme-containing
cellular inclusions, and in the formation of secretory granules in cells.
Golgi apparatus acts as a condensation membrane for the concentration of
products produced elsewhere into droplets or granules by losing water, which are
transported to the cell surface for export.
The principal function of Golgi complex is secretion.

The Golgi Apparatus

Golgi apparatus has been shown to be a great intracellular centre of enzyme
formation in some cell types.
Golgi body in endocrine cells helps in secretion of hormones.
Golgi bodies of plant cells synthesize all polysaccharides such as pectin,
hemicellulose and microfibrils of a-cellulose. These are packaged in vesicles for
secretion.
Glycoproteins are formed in the Golgi complex by the attachment of
carbohydrate to the protein products of the endoplasmic reticulum.

The Cell Factory

Vesicles in the cell act as store houses of
factories.

Vesicles
Vesicles are double membrane bound sacs carrying different products from one
part of the cell to another.
They are often associated with the Golgi apparatus.
They also carry food, enzymes, waste products.
They are involved in storage, transport and phagocytosis.
Lysosomes and peroxisomes are two kinds of vesicles found in the cell.

The Cell Factory

The Mitochondria are the power houses
of cells.

Mitochondrion
The mitochondrion is the site of cellular respiration.
The mitochondrion is a double membrane bound structure filled with a fluid
matrix.
The outer membrane is selectively permeable, just like the cell membrane.
The inner membrane is folded inward to provide extra surfaces for cellular
respiration.
These folds are known as cristae.

Mitochondrion
The inner membrane is freely permeable only to oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
water.
The inter-membrane space has an important role in the primary function of
mitochondria, which is oxidative phosphorylation.
The matrix contains dissolved oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, the recyclable
intermediates that serve as energy shuttles, enzymes etc.
Mitochondria produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by systematically
extracting energy from nutrient molecules (substrates).

The Cell Factory

The vacuoles are storage spaces in the
cell.

Vacuole
Vacuoles serve a variety of functions, including storage.
They have an irregular shape and are usually very large in plant cells, occupying
30 90% of the cell volume.
They contribute to the rigidity of the plant using water to develop hydrostatic
pressure.
They also store nutrient and non-nutrient chemicals and break down complex
molecules.

The Cell Factory

The nucleus is the seat of control of the cell.

Nucleus
Most eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus, which is seen under the microscope as a
dark mass inside the cell.
The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane, known as the nuclear
envelope.
A fluid-filled space or perinuclear space is present between the two layers of a
nuclear membrane.
The nuclear envelope is a highly regulated membrane barrier that allows the
compartmentalisation of the nucleus from the cytoplasm.

Nucleus
Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) are large proteinaceous channels that perforate
the nuclear membrane and allow transport of molecules in and out of the
nucleus.
Nucleoplasm, also known as karyoplasm, is the matrix present inside the
nucleus.
Genes are located in chromosomes inside the nucleus.
The nucleus is the site of DNA replication and transcription.

Nucleus
The DNA is transcribed into premessenger RNA (premRNAs) inside the
nucleus. The mature mRNA after splicing is exported to the cytoplasm for
translation.
The clearest substructure in the nucleus in most eukaryotes is the nucleolus,
which is the site of rDNA transcription and ribosome biosynthesis.
The nucleolus is the largest structure in the cell nucleus.
The nucleolus has numerous other functions including assembly of signal
recognition particles, modification of transfer RNAs and sensing cellular stress.

Nucleus
The nucleolus disappears when a cell undergoes division and is reformed after
the completion of cell division.
Nuclear speckles are highly dynamic, irregularly shaped nuclear domains
enriched with premRNA splicing factors.
One of the earliest ideas about the evolution of the eukaryotic cell was that
organelles formed when the plasma membrane grew into the cell and started
walling off parts of the cell. This idea, called the autogenic hypothesis, may
correctly explain the origin of the nuclear membrane, endoplasmic reticulum,
and Golgi apparatus.

Nucleus
Exceptions to the rule:
Multinucleated cells: Mammalian skeletal muscle cells; plasmodia of slime
molds; metastatizing tumor cells.
Enucleated cells: Mammalian red blood cells.
Dolly was born from an enucleated oocyte!

Chromosomes
Chromosomes are packaged forms of DNA
inside the nucleus.
Chromosomes are not visible in the cells
nucleusnot even under a microscopewhen
the cell is not dividing.
Most knowledge of chromosomes comes from
observations of DNA during cell division.
The haploid human genome contains approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA
packaged into 23 chromosomes.

Chromosomes
Each chromosome has a constriction point
called the centromere, which divides the
chromosome into two sections, or arms.
The short arm of the chromosome is labeled
the p arm. The long arm of the
chromosome is labeled the q arm.
The location of the centromere on each
chromosome gives the chromosome its
characteristic shape, and can be used to help
describe the location of specific genes.

Chromosomes
Histone proteins are involved in packaging chromosomal DNA into the
microscopic space of the eukaryotic nucleus.
The histone-DNA complex is known as chromatin.
Histones are a family of small, positively charged proteins termed H1, H2A,
H2B, H3, and H4. DNA is negatively charged, and thus binds to histones tightly.
The basic repeating structural (and functional) unit of chromatin is the
nucleosome, which contains eight histone proteins and about 146 base pairs of
DNA

Chromosomes
Histone proteins are not present in most prokaryotes.
Prokaryotes package their DNA by supercoiling.
Multiple proteins act together to fold and condense prokaryotic DNA. In
particular, one protein called HU, which is the most abundant protein in the
nucleoid, works with an enzyme called topoisomerase I to bind DNA and
introduce sharp bends in the chromosome, generating the tension necessary for
negative supercoiling.
Once the prokaryotic genome has been condensed, DNA topoisomerase I, DNA
gyrase, and other proteins help maintain the supercoils.