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In-cylinder Flow
Section 4
Pe
Products
Actual exhaust
Qout
Otto exhaust process 4-1
Air
BC
Pressure, P
WOT
EV closes
IV opens
IV closes
EV opens
Specific volume, v
EV opens
IV closes (state1)
EV closes
IV opens
Throttled: Pi < Pe
EV opens
EV closes
IV closes
6
IV opens
Supercharged: Pi > Pe
IV opens
EV closes
Pi Ti
Products
State 4 (BC)
State 5 (BC)
Blowdown
State 6 (TC)
Displacement
Blowdown At the end of the power stroke when the exhaust valve opens
the cylinder pressure is much higher than the exhaust manifold pressure
which is typically at 1 atm (P4 > Pe), so the cylinder gas flows out through the
exhaust valve and the pressure drops to Pe.
Displacement Remaining gas is pushed out of the cylinder by the piston
5
moving to TC.
Exhaust Blowdown
During blowdown the gas remaining in the cylinder undergoes expansion
which can be modelled as isentropic (neglecting heat transfer)
Blowdown
Displacement
5 (Otto/Diesel)
TC
BC
k 1
P
T4 e
P4
k 1
Residual Gas
The gas remaining in the clearance volume when the piston reaches TC (pt 6)
called the residual gas mixes with intake gas (fuel-air for SI and air for CI)
The residual gas temperature T6 is equal to T5
The Residual gas fraction f is defined as the ratio of the mass of residual
gas to the mass of the fuel-air (assume ideal gas Pv = RT)
m
m V v
1v
1T P 1T P
f 6 6 6 6 4 4 6 4 6
m1 m4 V4 v4 r v6 r T6 P4 r T5 P4
since
T5 P5
T4 P4
1
P5 k
1
f
r P4
k 1
P
6
P4
k 1
1
Pe k
1
r P4
Fluid leaving the cylinder earliest has higher velocity so temperature higher
when it stagnates in the manifold (T7a > T7b > T7c).
8
Intake Stroke 6 1
When the intake valve opens the fresh gas with mass mi mixes with the
hotter residual gas with mass mR so the gas temperature at the end of the
intake stroke T1 will be greater than the inlet temperature Ti.
Applying conservation of mass:
mi m1 mR m1 m6
Ti
m1 h1 P1v1 m6 h6 P6 v6 Pi (V1 V6 ) m1 m6 hi
h1
m1
m6
1
h
P
v
6
1
6 6
m
i
m1
6
P1
h1 1 f hi fh6 1 fRT6
P6
P1 k 1
T1 1 f Ti fT6 1 1
P
k
Pi k 1
T1 1 f Ti fTe 1 1
Pe k
10
Volumetric efficiency
mi
P / P 1
1 i e
iVd
k (r 1)
3
Pumping work
W561 ( Pi Pe )Vd
Pumping mep
pmep Pe Pi
Recall: imep
W34 W12
Vd
2
4
e
i
5
1
Net pmep
Heat input 23
11
12
P k 1
T1 1 f Ti fTe 1 1 i
Pe k
P1 Pi
P2 P1r k
T2 T1r k 1
2 - 3: Constant volume heat addition
T3 T2 qin (1 f ) / cV
P3 P2 (T3 / T2 )
T4 T3 (1 / r ) k 1
P4 P3 (1 / r ) k
4 - 5: Isentropic blowdown
T5 T4 ( Pe / P4 )
e
i
( k 1) / k
5
1
P5 Pe
5 - e: Constant pressure adiabatic
exhaust stroke
Te T5
Pe P5
f 1 / r ( Pe / P4 )1 / k
13
14
Valve Flow
The most significant gas flow restriction in an IC engine is the flow through
the intake and exhaust valves
The mass flow rate through the valve is given by:
2
k 1
m c f o Av co
Pv
Po
2
k
Pv
Po
k 1
k
Pv
1
2
Pcyl
m , Po , o
m cr c f o Av co
k 1
2 ( k 1)
15
Valve Flow
Minimum areas:
low lift - Av = A1= dl
high lift - Av= A2= d2/4
Pcyl
A1
A2
flow coefficient (c f )
discharge coefficient (c d )
16
Set: Av
Measure: mi, Ti, Pi
Pv
Po
2
k
P
v
Po
k 1
k
1
2
Calculate: cf
m 2
cf
o Av co k 1
17
In reality a cam is used to progressively open and close the valves, the
lobes are contoured so that the valve land gently on the seat.
Duration
Valve starts
to open
CA
Valve completely
closed
18
Valve Sizing
In order to avoid choked flow the intake valves are sized based on:
U
Av 1.3b 2 p
ci
where Av is the average valve area, b is the cylinder bore, U p is average
piston velocity, ci speed of sound of gas in intake port.
Exhaust valves can be smaller since the speed of sound of the exhaust
gas expelled is significantly larger.
Since there is only so much room available for valves it is common to
have multiple intake and exhaust valves per cylinder. This increases
valve area to piston area ratio permitting higher engine speeds.
19
Valve Sizing
Heads are often wedge-shaped or domed, this permits Av/Ap up to 0.5.
Double overhead cams per cylinder bank are used to accommodate
multiple valves, one cam for each pair of intake and exhaust valves
20
Valve Overlap
In real engines in order to ensure that the valve is fully open during a
stroke, for high volumetric efficiency, the valves are open for longer than
180o.
The exhaust valve opens before BC and closes after TC and the intake
valve opens before TC and closes after BC.
At TC there is a period of time called valve overlap where both the intake
and exhaust valves are open.
2
4
e
i
TC
5
1
BC
BC
TC
BC
CA
21
Valve overlap
When the intake valve opens bTC the cylinder pressure is at roughly P e
Part throttle (Pi < Pe): residual gas flows into the intake port. During intake
stroke the residual gas is first returned to the cylinder then fresh gas is
introduced. Residual gas reduces part load performance.
WOT (Pi = Pe): some fresh gas can flow out the exhaust valve reducing
fuel efficiency and increasing emissions.
Supercharged (Pi > Pe): fresh gas can flow out the exhaust valve
Pe
Pi
Throttled
Pi < Pe
Pi
Pe
Supercharged
Pi > Pe
22
Engine load
WOT bmep
sfc
Engine speed:
Idle - 1000 rpm
Economy - 2500 rpm
Performance - 4000 rpm
23
Valve Timing
Conventional
Performance
EVO
EVO
e
i
IVO
IVC
EVC
TC
180o
BC
e
i
IVO
TC
IVC
EVC
180o
BC
Valve Timing
Overlap
15o
65o
At high engine speeds less time available for fresh gas intake so need more
crank angles to get high volumetric efficiency large valve overlap
At low engine speed and part throttle valve overlap is minimized by reducing
the number of CA the intake valve stays open.
Variable Valve Timing used to obtain optimum performance over wide a
range of engine speeds and load
25
27
P = cylinder pressure
Lv = valve displacement
P, Lv
Lv, exh
Exhaust
Lv, int
Ppo o
Intake
Po
WOT
Part throttle
e
i
TC
BC
TC
4
2
BC
28
Valve Float
The valve spring normally keeps the top of the valve stem in contact with
the cam lobe
At very high engine speeds, and thus high camshaft speeds, it is difficult to
maintain contact between the cam lobe and the top of the valve stem as a
result the valves stay open longer than desired.
Spring
29
Cylinder
Muffler
30
Exhaust manifold used to duct the exhaust gases from each cylinder to
a point of expulsion such as the tail pipe.
31
Manifold Pressure
3000 rpm
6000 rpm
32
Volumetric Efficiency
Recall the volumetric efficiency is defined as:
ma
a ,oVd
N ( S / 2) U p
33
Factors affecting v
Heat transfer:
All intake systems are hotter than ambient air, so the density of the air
entering the cylinder is lower than ambient air density.
Injection system and throttle bodies are purposely heated to enhance fuel
evaporation.
Greatest problem at lower engine speeds more time for air to be heated.
Pcyl
m f
m a
34
Factors affecting v
Fluid friction:
The air flows through a duct through an air filter, throttle and intake valve
Air moving through any flow passage or past a flow restriction undergoes a
pressure drop
The pressure at the cylinder is thus lower than atmospheric pressure
Greatest problem at higher engine speeds when the air flow velocity is high
35
Factors affecting v
Fuel evaporation:
In naturally aspirated engines (no supercharging) the volumetric efficiency
will always be less than 100% because fuel is added and the fuel vapour
will displace incoming air.
The earlier the fuel is added in the intake system the lower the volumetric
efficiency because more of the fuel evaporates before entering the cylinder.
In Diesels fuel is added directly into the cylinder so get a higher efficiency.
36
Factors affecting v
Residual gas:
Recall the residual fraction given by
f 1 / r ( Pe / P4 )1 / k
e
i
TC
IO
IC
EC
BC
The longer the valve overlap, more exhaust gases are pushed into the
intake port.
Greatest problem at lower engine speeds when there is more time for
exhaust gases to back up.
37
Po = atmospheric pressure
Air cleaner
Po
Pair
Pu
Pthrottle
Pvalve
WOT
Part throttle
Cylinder
Muffler
Extreme case of flow restriction is when the flow chokes at the intake valve
as engine speed increases flow velocity remains the same have less fill38
time.
Factors affecting v
Closing the intake valve after BC (backflow):
When the piston reaches BC there is still a pressure difference across the
intake valve and the fuel-air mixture continues to flow into the cylinder,
therefore close the intake valve after BC.
As the piston changes direction the mixture is compressed, when the
pressure equals the intake manifold pressure the flow into the cylinder stops.
Best time to close the intake valve is when the manifold and cylinder
pressures are equal, close the valve too early and dont get full load, too late
and air flows back into the intake port.
At high engine speeds larger pressure drop across intake valve because of
higher flow velocity, so ideally want to close valve later after BC (60 o aBC).
At low engine speeds smaller pressure drop across the intake valve so
ideally want to close the intake valve earlier after BC (40o aBC).
39
Factors affecting v
RAM Effect:
As the intake valve closes at higher engine speeds, the inertia of the air in the
intake system increases the pressure in the intake port, called the ram effect.
This effect becomes progressively more important at higher engine speeds.
To take advantage of ram effect close intake valve after BC.
40
Factors affecting v
Intake and exhaust tuning:
When the intake valve opens the air suddenly rushes into the cylinder and an
expansion wave propagates back to the intake manifold at the local speed of
sound relative to the flow velocity.
When the expansion wave reaches the manifold it reflects back towards to
intake valve as a compression wave. The time it takes for the round trip
depends on the length of the runner and the flow velocity.
If the timing is appropriate the compression wave arrives at the inlet at the
end of the intake process raising the pressure above the nominal inlet
pressure allowing more air to be injected.
For fixed runner length the intake is tuned for one engine speed (flow velocity)
Similarly the exhaust system can be tuned to get a lower pressure at the
exhaust valve increasing the exhaust flow velocity.
41
42
43
Swirl motion
Helical port
Tangential injection
Contoured valve
44
Swirl Theory
Swirl can be simply modelled as solid body rotation, i.e., cylinder of gas
rotating at angular velocity, .
Tangential flow velocity is v = r
The swirl ratio, Rs, is defined as the ratio of the gas angular velocity and
the crank shaft angular velocity, i.e.,
Rs
2N
where N is the engine speed (revolutions per second)
is the air solid-body angular velocity (rad/s)
45
Swirl Theory
The angular momentum, , and moment of inertia, I, of a rotating
volume of gas is:
I
I rdm
MB 2
for a cylinder I
8
46
Engine Swirl
Many engines have a wedge shape cylinder head cavity or a bowl in the
piston where the gas ends up at TC.
48
Intake Flow
The intake process governs many important aspects of the flow within the
cylinder. The gas issues from the valve opening as a conical jet with radial
and axial velocities that are about ten times the mean piston velocity.
The jet separates from the valve producing shear layers with large velocity
gradients which generate turbulence.
The jet is deflected by the cylinder wall down towards the piston and up
towards the cylinder head producing recirculation zones.
Additional turbulence is generated by the velocity gradient at the wall
in the boundary layer.
Shear layers
Large vortices become unstable
and eventually break down into
turbulent motion
49
Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow is characterized by its transient and random nature.
Steady flow
50
Turbulence
The fluid velocity measured at a point in a specific direction:
Ux(t)
Ux mean velocity (steady)
Ux(t1)
u(t2)
t1
t2
where u '2
1 t
2
t u ' (t ) dt
t
2
51
TC
Cycle i
Instantaneous
BC
Measurement
point
BC
TC
BC
TC
BC
CA
In engines the flow is statistically periodic (the flow pattern changes with
crank angle) not steady.
The instantaneous velocity measured at a specific crank angle in a
particular cycle i is:
U ( , i ) U ( ) u ' ( , i )
52
Individual cycle
mean
Instantaneous
UEA
Ensemble average
CA
Flows that are statistically periodic are treated using ensemble average:
1n
U EA ( ) U ( , i )
n i
where n is the number of cycles averaged.
53
ut ( ) u '2 ( , i )
n i 1
54
55
Turbulence Length-Scales
Turbulent flow is comprised of eddies (vorticies) with a multitude of length
scales and vorticities (measure of angular velocity).
The largest eddies in the flow are limited in size by the enclosure with
characteristic length-scale of L (e.g., large eddy associated with swirl).
The integral scale l represents the largest turbulent vortex size, determined
by the fluctuating velocity frequency.
Superimposed on the large scale flow is a range of eddies of smaller and
smaller size.
Most of the KE of the flow is contained in the large eddies.
The KE is converted to thermal energy via viscous effects.
56
u '2 L2
3
u ' L
inertia force per unit volume
L
Re
u ' L
Viscous forces are only important in the smallest scale where the Re# 1
The eddy size at which the flow KE is dissipated by viscous effects is
known as the Kolmogorov scale, and the eddy dimension is .
There is one more length-scale between the integral and Kolmogorov scales
known as the Taylor microscale which represents the distance over which
viscous effects can be felt, or the mean spacing between dissipative eddies.
57
58
15
Re t1 2
l C
1 4
C Re t3 4
l
where C1, C, and C are numbers unique to the flow.
The turbulent Reynolds number is based on the integral scale and the
turbulent velocity
ul
Re t t
If the integral scale can be determined so can all the other scales.
As the engine speed increases the Re# increases so the smaller scales
of turbulence decrease in size.
59
AIR
PROD
AIR
60
Scavanging Performance
Delivery ratio, Dr
Dr
Trapping efficiency,
Scavanging efficiency, es
es
If the cylinder volume is completely filled with air the delivery ratio is
given by:
Dr
a Vbc Vbc
r
1
a Vd Vd r 1
61
Scavanging Models
A. Perfect scavanging no mixing, air displaces the products out the exhaust
(if extra air is delivered (delivery ratio > r/r-1) it is not retained)
B. Short circuiting the air initially displaces all the products within the path
of the short circuit and then flows into and out of the cylinder
C. Perfect mixing the first air to enter the cylinder mixes instantaneously
with the products and the gas leaving is almost all residual
(for larger delivery ratio most of gas leaving is air)
62