LOGO

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO
SEMICONDUCTOR
EE 201
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
BY
PN. RUHIYAH NAZIHAH ZAHKAI
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
POLYTECHNIC SULTAN IDRIS SHAH

COURSE LEARNING OUTLINE

At the end of this course, you will be able to :
Describe illustratively the theoretical characteristics
and electrical properties of semiconductors. (C2)

Explain the applications of semiconductor

devices using the schematic diagrams. (C4)
Conduct the construction of semiconductor
devices application circuits based on
schematic diagrams. (P4)

Objectives

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:1.1 Understand the characteristics and electrical
properties of semiconductors.
1.1.1 Define a semiconductor and state that silicon and
Germanium are semiconductor materials.
1.1.2 Explain the characteristics of N-type and P- type
semiconductors.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
All matters on earth made of atoms (made up
of elements or combination of elements).
All atoms consist of electrons, protons, and
neutrons.
An atom is the smallest particle of an
element that retains the characteristics of
that element.

Bohrs Atomic Structure

According to Bohr,
atoms have a
planetary structure
that consists of a
central nucleus,
surrounded by
orbiting electrons.
Nucleus contains
protons and
neutrons.

 The ability of a material to conduct

current is based on its atomic
structure.
The orbit paths of the electrons
surrounding the nucleus are called
shells.
Each shell has a defined number
of electrons it will hold.(2xn2)
Ex:Copper:2.8.18.1 (electron
valence)
The outer shell is called the
valence shell and electrons at this
layer are called valence electrons.
Maximum number of valence
electron is 8
The less complete a shell is filled
to capacity the more conductive
the material is

The valence shell determines the ability of material

to conduct current.
Copper atom has only 1
electron in its valence
ring. This makes it a good
conductor.

Silicon atom has 4

electrons in its valence
ring. This makes it a
semiconductor.

CONDUCTOR
An atom of a material carries 1 to 3 valence
electrons.
Any material that will support a generous flow
of charge when a voltage source is applied
across its terminals.
the atom has more tendency to lose its
valence electrons which become free
electron (Copper,Aluminium)

INSULATOR
An atom of a material carries 5 to 8 valence
electron
A material that offers a very low level of
conductivity under pressure from an applied
voltage source.
The atom has more tendency to gain free
electrons to complete its shell. ( Argon,
Neon)

SEMICONDUCTOR
An atom of a material carries 4 valence
electrons,
A material that has a conductivity level
somewhere between a conductor and an
insulator.
It is not easy for the atom to lose or gain any
electrons. (Silicon, Germanium, Carbon)

SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL

Shell valence
consist of 4
electron valence

32

14

Figure 1.2
Silicon (14 electrons)

Figure 1.3
Germanium (32
electrons)

Shell valence
consist of 4
electron valence

Figure 1.3
Carbon (6 electrons)

COVALENT BOND
In a pure silicon or germanium crystal, the
four valence electrons of one atom form a
bonding arrangement with four adjoining
atoms.
This bonding of atoms, strengthened by the
sharing of electrons, is called covalent
bonding a method by which atoms
complete their valence shell by sharing
valence electrons with other atoms

COVALENT BOND

The atoms are

electrically stable
because their
valence
shells are
complete.

The center silicon atoms share an electron share each

of the four surrounding atoms creating covalent band
with each

CONDUCTOR IN SEMICONDUCTOR
When an intrinsic silicon crystal gains
sufficient heat (thermal energy), some
valence electrons could break their covalent
bonds to jump the gap into conduction band,
becoming free electrons.
Free electrons are also called conduction
electrons, (negative charge).
This vacancy in the valence band is called a
hole (positive charge).

 For every electron

raised to the
conduction band, there
is 1 hole in the valence
band creating
electron-hole pair.
When a conduction
electron loses energy
and falls back into a
hole, this is called
recombination.
With the existence of
holes and electrons,
current can be
produced when a
voltage is applied
across the terminals.

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Intrinsic (pure) materials are those

semiconductors that have been carefully refined
to reduce the impurities to a very low level.
Intrinsic (pure) Si and Ge are poor conductor due
partially to the number of valence electrons,
covalent bonding and relatively large energy gap.
Extrinsic materials are those semiconductors that
have been subjected to doping process and no
longer pure.
Doping is the process of adding impurity atoms
to intrinsic Si or Ge to improve the conductivity of
the semiconductor.

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
There are two types of semiconductor material
that are subjected to doping process which are :
a) N-type Extrinsic
b) P-type Extrinsic
Two types of elements used for doping are:
a) Trivalent element that has three valence
electrons.
b) Pentavalent element that has five valence
electrons

N type
N-type is created by adding pentavalent impurity
atoms Arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth
(Bi), into a pure Si or Ge base.
Pentavalent also known as donor atoms since
they donate electrons.
Each pentavalent atom forms covalent bond with
4 adjacent Si atom

 Since only 4 electrons

are needed to form a
covalent bond, leaving
an extra electron
becomes a free electron
when each pentavalent
atom is added.
In n-type material
electrons are majority
carrier, and holes the
minority carrier

P-Type
P-type is created by adding Trivalent (with 3
valence electrons) impurity atoms
Aluminium (Al), boron (B), indium (In),gallium
(Ga) into apure Si or Ge base through the
doping process.
Trivalent also known as a acceptor atom
since they accept electrons.

 Each trivalent atom forms

covalent bond with 4
adjacent Si atom.
Since 4 electrons are
needed to form a covalent
bond, causes an existence
of hole in the covalent
bonding.
It also causes a lack of
valence electrons in the B
atoms.
In p-type material holes
are majority carrier, and
electron the minority
carrier

Review
1. What is a semiconductor
2. Explain a covalent bonding
3. Whats the difference between a
pentavalent atom and a trivalent atom?
4. What is the difference between intrinsic and
extrinsic semiconductors?
5. Explain the differences between p-type and
n-type semiconductor.

COURSE LEARNING OUTLINE

At the end of this course, you will be able to :
Describe illustratively the theoretical characteristics
and electrical properties of semiconductors. (C2)

Explain the applications of semiconductor

devices using the schematic diagrams. (C4)
Conduct the construction of semiconductor
devices application circuits based on
schematic diagrams. (P4)

Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:1.2 Understand the characteristics of P-N junction and its
reaction towards voltage biasing.
1.2.1 Illustrate the formation of a junction
a. Free electrons mobility.
b. Formation of depletion region and its properties.
c. Existence of threshold voltage and its values for
silicon and germanium.
1.2.2 Illustrate the meaning of forward biased voltage and
reverse biased voltage supplied across a P-N junction.

1.2.3 Identify the effects when a P-N junction is supplied with

forward biased voltage and reverse biased voltage on the
following items:
a. Area of depletion region
b. Junction resistance
c. Current flow (including leakage current)
1.2.4 Explain why breakdown occurs when P-N junction is
reverse biased.
.

P-N JUNCTION
The PN Junction is formed when ptype
region is joined with the ntype region. This is
a basic structure forms a semiconductor
diode.
The ntype region has many free electrons
(majority carriers) and only a few thermally
generated holes.
The ptype region has many holes (majority
carriers) and only a few thermally generated
free electrons (minority carriers)

P-N JUNCTION
With the formation of the p and n materials,
holes from ptype will diffuse into the ntype,
and electrons from ntype will diffuse into the
ptype.
Combination of electrons and holes at the
junction takes place.
When equilibrium is reached, no further
diffusion of electrons and holes across the
junction.

 The pregion loses

holes, and become
negatively charged
The nregion loses
electrons, and
become positively
charged
This creates the
depletion region
and has a barrier
potential
The depletion
region is a region
depleted of any
charge carriers

 An electric field oriented

in the direction from the
(+) charge to the (-)
charge will be created.
Built-in Potential Barrier
or Built-in Voltage (Vbi)
is a potential difference
across the depletion
region.
Value of Vbi for
Germanium (0.3V) and
Silicon (0.7V)

No bias
In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the
net flow of charge in any one direction for a p-n
junction is zero.

No bias
Note that the arrow
is associated with
p-type component
and the bar with
the n-type region.
As indicated for
VD=0V, the current
in any direction is
0 mA.

Reverse Bias condition (VD< 0V)

The p-type material is connected to the negative
terminal and the n-type is connected to the
positive terminal.

The positive terminal of the battery extracts

free electrons from the n-region and the
negative terminal extracts free holes (positive
ions) from the p-region.
The number of uncovered positive ion in the nregion and negative ions in the p-region will
increase. Hence, the width of the depletion
region increases.

Cont
However, in real P-N junction, there is a
small flow of current in the reversed-biased
mode. This is due to the thermally
generated electrons and holes which cross
the junction to the battery terminals.
As the temperature is high enough, there
will be a constant generation of electronhole pairs and the current exists is called
the reverse-saturation current, Is or
leakage current.

Forward Bias condition (VD > 0V)

The p-type material is connected to the positive
terminal and the n-type is connected to the negative
terminal.

Cont
Positive terminal of the battery will push
the holes in the p-region towards the
junction.
Hence, the recombination process occurs
and the number of negative ion in the pregion near the junction decreases.

Cont
Negative terminal of the battery will push the
free electron in the n-region towards the
junction and recombine with the positive ion.
Hence, the number of positive ion
decreases. As a result, the number of
uncovered ions is reduced and the width of
the depletion region will also reduce.

Cont
Since, the barrier potential is now reduced;
electrons in n-type will be easily moved to
the p-region.
This is also assisted by the negative terminal
which push the electrons and positive
terminal that pulls the electron. Hence, a
heavy majority carrier flows across the
junction

Breakdown Voltage
When a reverse-bias is applied to a p-n junction (diode),
the electric field in the depletion region increases.
The electric field may become large enough that covalent
bonds are broken and electron hole pairs are created.
Electrons are swept into the n-region and holes are
swept into the p-region by the electric field, generating a
large reverse current. This phenomenon is called
breakdown.
This current can be limited by the external circuit. If this
current is not limited, a large Power can be dissipated in
the junction that may damage the device and cause
burnout.

Review
1. Draw and state the meaning of forward
biased voltage and reverse biased voltage
supplied across a P-N junction
2. Identify the effects when a P-N junction is
supplied with forward biased voltage and
reverse biased voltage on the following
items
a. Area of depletion region
b. Junction resistance
c. Current flow
3 Explain why breakdown occurs when P-N
junction is reverse biased.

END