The dual nature of light

wave theory of light explains most phenomena

involving light:

wave theory does not explain:

propagation in straight line

reflection
refraction
superposition, interference, diffraction
polarization
Doppler effect
frequency dependence of thermal radiation
photoelectric effect

IS LIGHT A WAVE OR A PARTICLE?

answer:
it is both, depending on what question you ask:
it has a wave' aspect and a particle aspect
Note:
according to quantum theory, particles (e.g.
electrons, protons,..) have also a wave aspect!
(depends on what question you ask)

Thermal radiation

experimental observations:
atoms of a hot solid emit radiation;
increase in temperature more radiation, and
component of maximum intensity shifted towards
higher frequency (shorter wavelength)
classical explanation:
the hotter the solid, the more vibrational energy
higher frequency of vibration of atoms/electrons
higher frequency of radiation
but frequency spectrum of this radiation (black body
radiation calculated within framework of
electromagnetism and thermodynamics did not agree
with measured spectrum;
predicted ultraviolet catastrophe I f4

Max Planck's hypothesis (1900):

energy is quantized;
oscillators (oscillating atoms) can only have
certain amounts of energy

relation between energy and frequency of oscillator:

E = h f,
where h = Plancks constant = 6.63x10 -34 Js
calculation of black body spectrum using Planck's
hypothesis gives formula (Planck formula) which
describes measured spectra.
= first evidence that energy is quantized

Photoelectric effect

(first observed by Heinrich Hertz in 1887)

electrons are emitted when certain metallic materials exposed to
light (now used in photocells in cameras, and solar energy cells)
some aspects of photoelectric effect could not be explained by
classical theory:

classical theory: if light continuos flow of e.m. energy takes

some (calculable) time for wave to supply sufficient energy
for electron to be emitted;

find experimentally: current flows almost immediately upon

exposure to light;

classical theory: light of any frequency could cause

photoelectric effect - need only sufficient intensity

find experimentally: only light with frequency above certain

minimum frequency causes electrons to be emitted

classical theory: energy of electrons depends on light

intensity

find experimentally: energy of electrons depends on

frequency

Albert Einstein's explanation:

assume that not only energy in atoms is quantized, but also

energy carried by light
light comes in packets of energy called light quanta or
photons
energy of one photon = h f, where f = frequency of the light.
with this assumption, all aspects of photoelectric effect could
be explained
photon energy vs color of light: E = hf = hc/
blue light has more energy than red light