Critical Theory

By Jessica Studer, Kari

Carlson, and Chris Logan

Roots of Critical Theory

This school of thought emerged from

the work of German theorists

collectively known as The Frankfurt
School. The roots of Critical Theory
are directly centered in the creation
of The Institute for Social Research
and the social thinkers who promoted
the Idealism of Karl Marx.

Institute for Social Research

The first Marxist oriented research school was in

Europe
Scholars at school developed a critical theory of
society called kritisch Therorie which was designed
for a specific approach to interpreting Marxism
This approach sought to revise Marxs. Critique of
capitalism and the idea that revolution was the best
way to change the social and political structure since
his death
The first president of the school was Carl Grundberg,
who wanted Scientific Marxism
Max Horkheimer, the second president, wanted a
more philosophical and less dogmatic approach
which was open to diverse intellectual currents
The dilemma that the first generation of Critical
Theorists had to reconcile was Marxs emancipatory
dream with the stark reality of modern society as
conceptualized by Max Weber (pg. 232)

Institute for Social Research

Cont.
The school was restrained by Adolf Hitler and

The school was restrained by Adolf Hitler and

had its Jewish members exiled
School was relocated to Columbia university
in 1934
The term Critical Theory was coined in 1937
(this concept was initially a type of code
which, while differentiating is adherents from
prevailing forms of orthodoxy, also tended to
veil radical comments in an environment
that was hostile to anything remotely
associated with Marxism)
In 1953 school had re-established in post
Germany where they were still subject to
attack in press and academia

G.W.F. Hegel (1931-)

Hegels Phenomenology Of The Mind

gave two important influences on

Critical Theory. First, the critique
which took form of internal or
immanent examination of various
sources of deception, illusion, and
distortion the mind goes through on
the journey to absolute knowledge.
Second, the belief that human history
expresses an immanent telos, which is
the liberation of individual and species
from a system of constraints of the
peoples own minds. A key component
to understanding Hegel is that he
assumes that humans are driven by a
common interest in freedom.

Georg (Gyorgy) Lukacs

(1885-1971)
His publication History and Class

Consciousness argued that

subjectivity is annihilated by
commodity production
Blended Marxs ideas of fetishism
of commodities with the belief that
rationality is penetrating more
spheres of modern life
It is said that Lukacs analyses of
alienation, commodity fetishism,
subjectivity, consciousness, and
spontaneous action are the
theoretical bridge to Critical theory

Max Horkheimer (18951973)

Chair of social philosophy and then

director of The Institute for Social

Research
Institute under his supervision was
oriented to developing social theory
on an interdisciplinary basis. He
wanted this theory to benefit from
both the reflective capacity of
philosophy and the rigorous
procedures of the individual sciences
Saw society as a totality that was
continuously restructuring itself
which resulted in the idea of social
absolute or a complete or perfect
state of social phenomenon being
criticized

Horkheimer Cont.
Endorsed the idea that there is no absolute truth of

reality
Thought Manheims Sociology of knowledge to be
practically no less than theoretically wrongheaded
and in his essay Traditional and Critical Theory
distinguishes itself from Manheim and emphasizes a
dialectical representation of Marxs critique of
political economy which was to be the analytical
framework for critical theory
Maintained the idea that there are no general criteria
for critical theory as a whole since it depended on a
repetition of events, Horkheimer said critical theory
aims to asses the breach between ideas and reality

Theodor WisengaurdAdorno (1903-1969)

Attempted to establish a critical
social consciousness
Argued that objects exist for us
through conceptuality
In Negative Dialectics, he
insisted that the dialectic
approach is not a middle point
between absolutism and reality
and was against the idea that
critical theory should merely
criticize one point of view in
favor of another

Defining Critical Theory

There is no clear cut definition and the

term itself is confused with literary

criticism and other approaches to
social theory could be consider critical
Critical theory offers a multidisciplinary
approach to society, is subject to
change but is rooted in the dialectical
tradition of Marx and Hegel

Critical Theory Cont.

Argues to have six Marxian tenets associated

with critical theory which are:

1. We lie in a society dominated by the capitalist mode of

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

production, and a society based on exchange principals pf

value and profit
The commodity character of products is not simply
determined by their exchange value, but by their being
abstractly exchanged though labor
Capitalist society ensures fetishism reification
Capitalism is not a harmonious social world. Contradictions
between socially generated illusions and actuality lead to
potential crisis
The free market is progressively replaced by the oligarchies
and monopolistic mass production of standardized goods
The progressive rise on the organic composition of capital
per worker exacerbates the inherently unstable
accumulation processes. In order to sustain the process its
protagonists utilize all means of available including
imperialist expansion

Hebert Marcuse (18981979)

Background

Born in Berlin to a prosperous Jewish family

After serving in German Army in WWI, became
associated with the Social Democratic Party
Left party in 1919 in protest over betrayal of the
proletariat
Went on to study philosophy at the universities of
Berlin and Freiburg
In December 1942 joined the Office of War
Information as a senior analyst in the Bureau of
Intelligence
Taught at Columbia and Harvard
While there began research which led to writing
of Soviet Marxism
Gained world status during 1960s as a philosopher,
social theorist, and political activist
Career represents a constant attempt to examine,
defend, and reconstruct Marxist enterprise

Concepts and Contributions

Critical Theory
Stated that critical theory is a process of bringing
consciousness potentialities that have emerged
within the maturing historical situation
Is a theory guided by political practice
Marcuses critical theory was influenced by Hegel
and Marx
Critical theory of society is essentially linked with
materialism
There are two basic elements linking materialism to
correct social theory:
1.
2.

Concern with human happiness

Conviction that it can be attained through a transformation
of the material conditions of existence

Combining thoughts of Hegel and Marx, he

concluded that history is the arena is which

humans seek the freedom to manifest universal
rationality

Concepts and Contributions

Cont.

Technological Rationality
An extension of Webers idea of rationalization
Defined term in his work, One-Dimensional Man
Argued that modern industrial society was
dominated by a technological rationality, with
the working middle class as its vocal supporter
and defender
Concerned that the cost of material satisfaction
was the loss of individual freedoms and liberties
Makes two claims:
1. The workers of industrial society are suffering from false
consciousness
2. The workers should not be happy with material
satisfaction but should be striving for some unidentified
nonmaterial satisfaction

Concepts and Contributions

Cont.
The New Left
Radical writings were a perfect match for his

place in time
He was looked upon as the guru of the New
Left
Gave lectures and advice to student radicals
Used the media to spread to word of Marxian
theory, revolutionary vision, and libertarian
socialism

Concepts and Contributions

Cont.

Revolution
Entrenched in the Marxist tradition is the

necessity for revolution

Argued that Marxian concept of revolution
implies continuity in change
Proposed a global revolution where
capitalism is replaced by socialism
The revolutionists that would challenge
corporate capitalism are concentrated at
two opposite poles of society:
1. The ghetto population
2. The middle class intelligentsia

Concepts and Contributions

Cont.

Sexual Revolution
In favor of the sexual revolution
Against those who tried to impose sexual
codes of conduct on others in the name of
religion, especially those who would invade
the realm of individual privacy
For Marcuse, sexual repression was more
than just another evil capitalism; it
represented the bourgeois concept of love
In Negations, he condemned the bourgeois
era as an attempt to isolate individuals
from their natural drives
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, he was
one of the most influential radical theorists

Jurgen Habermas (1929-)

Background
Born in Gummersbach in 1929
Grew up during Nazi regime and WWII: Two

influences that have a profound effect on his

thinking and writings
Studied philosophy at Gottingen, Zurich, and
Bonn, where he earned his doctorate in 1954
In 1964 he became a professor of philosophy
at Frankfurt
Perhaps most well known of second generation
of critical theorists
He was influenced by the works of Marx,
Weber, and the early members of the Frankfurt
School
Writings are steeped in the German tradition

Concepts and Contributions

Critical Theory
In his article The Tasks of a Critical Theory he stated
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

that the work of the Institute for Social Research was

basically dominated by six themes:
The Forms of Integration in Postliberal Societies: Whether
in a democracy or totalitarian regimes
Gamily Socialization and Ego Development: The
structural change of the bourgeois nuclear family and the
weakening of the authoritarian position of the father
Mass Media and Mass Culture: The development of a
culture industry for the manipulative control of
consciousness
The Social Psychology behind Cessation of Protest:
Political consciousness of workers and employees
The Theory of Art: The arts as the preferred object of an
ideology
The Critique of Positivisim and Science: Science as a tool

Concepts and Contributions

Critical Theory Cont.
His critical theory was inspired by classical

Greek and German philosophy, which

stressed the inseparability of truth and
virtue, of facts and values, and of theory and
practice
Wanted a society where people are free to
assemble and communicate openly
Communication and understanding of
language are the keys to understanding and
comprehending knowledge
Described the ideal speech situation as one
that is un-coerced, free for all people, and in
which all people are treated equally

Concepts and Contributions

Cont.

Communication Theory
Concerned with reformulating Marxian theory in the

light of twentieth-century social changes

Expands Marxs conception of humanity by adding
language to work as a distinct feature of species-being
To escape the philosophical historical materialism of
Marxist thought, he proposed that a theory cannot be
tied to concrete ideals of human life
Instead, it must orient itself to the range of learning
processes that are opened at any given time
The use of language as a significant aspect of human
development led Habermas to concentrate on how
undistorted communication might lay the foundation
for the emancipation of individuals

Concepts and Contribtions

Communication Theory Cont.
Distorted communication is similar to

Marxs false consciousness

Use of undistorted communication reveals
the influence of Freudian psychoanalysis
on his communication theory
Argued that individuals life worlds are
influenced by constant interaction with
others and with societys social structures

Concepts and Contributions

Cont. and Modernity
Rationality

Critical of Western industrial democracies for their reduction

of the human world to some form of economic efficiency

Believed that rationality-the ability to think logically and
analytically-is more than a strategic calculation of how to
achieve some chosen end; it is a form of communicative
action
Rational behavior serves the individuals best interest and is
a key ingredient in understanding others during social
behavior
Ideas of rationality led him to explain modernity
The concepts of rationality and modernity come together in
his examination of the life world
Also critical of scientism-identifying knowledge with sciencebecause of its relation to positivism
Believed that critical theory should be a critique of
knowledge, opposed positivism because it attempted to
objective knowledge

Concepts and Contributions

Cont.

Democracy
Democracy must be seen first and foremost as a
process that results when certain kind of social
interaction prevails
Democracy should be seen as a particular way
by which citizens make collective and rational
decisions
Envisioned a deliberate democracy where a
governments laws and institutions would be a
reflection of free and open public discussion
According to Habermas, modern democracies of
the West are dominated by political legitimation

Douglas Kellner (1943-)

Background
Born in 1943
Received his Ph.D. from

Columbia University in 1973

Known for his systematic and
critical review of television in the
U.S.
He believes that the media,
television in particular, have long
served the interests of the
powerful

Concepts and Contributions

Critical Theory
Kellners critical theory is based on the premise that we

have not moved into a postmodern, or postindustrial

age, but rather that capitalism continues to reign
supreme, as it did in the heyday of critical theory.
Kellner described technocapitalism as a capitalist
society structured so that technical and scientific
knowledge, automation, computers, and advanced
technology play such a significant role in the process of
production that they parallel the role of human labor
power in early capitalism.
Kellner does not endeavor to develop a full-scale theory
of techno-capitalism. His main point is that although it
has changed dramatically, capitalism remains in the
contemporary world

Concepts and Contributions

Cont.
Media and Culture

Kellners ideas on the effect of media on culture are influenced by

the world of Baudrillard. His theory of a new, postmodern society

rests on a key assumption that the media constitute a new realm
of experience and a new stage of history and type of society
Kellner provided statistics that demonstrate how prevalent
television is in contemporary society: In excess of 750 million TV
sets in more than 160 countries are watched by 2.5 billion people
per day. Nearly every home in the U.S. has a TV set that is turned
on for more than 7 hours per day
He was concerned that television is a threat to democracy
Believes that television contributes to social integration and
implies that democratized media could be the basis for a
revitalized public sphere.
Concluded that television has worked increasingly to further
conservative hegemony. In so doing, television has helped
produce a crisis in democracy
The advent of cable television in the 1970s was directly
responsible for the increase in public access programs, channels
for government, and educational programming

Concepts and Contributions

Cont.

Postmodernism
Postmodern thought extends to many

disciplines, most notably art, but has also

crept into sociological discourse since the mid1980s
Kellner noted that the primary methods of
postmodernism are deconstruction, reversal,
and inversion. This implies that the theorist
must question the taken-for-granted world, the
rules of the game, and the claims to authority
found in a society. Kellner viewed
postmodernism as a new stage of society, a
break with the previous social order
The postmodern attitude is reflected in
expressionist art

Relevancy
Critical theory is generally about the role of power

in social relations
Critical theory has existed since the formation of the
Institute for Social Research at Frankfurt University
in 1923
Contemporary critical theorists have increasingly
turned their attention to the media and other forms
of entertainment in their examination of modern
culture
Critical theory cannot be characterized by a
particular set of methodological techniques and
theoretical propositions; however, it is still a
coherent approach to the social world that is
separate from other types of sociology and Marxism

Criticisms of Critical Theory

The first criticism of critical theory is that it reproduces

idealist (utopian) positions

The second criticism is that critical theory shows undue
concern about philosophical and theoretical problems
The third criticism of critical theory is its preoccupation
with negativity
The fourth criticism of critical theory is the claim that it
developed from a purely academic setting and thus was
isolated from working-class politics (add to this, the fact
that Marxs conception of the working class as a
revolutionary force is untrue) and became increasingly
embroiled in abstract issues and second-order
discourse
The fifth criticism leveled against critical theory is that it
is a historical (critical theorists have examined a variety
of events without paying much attention to their
historical and comparative contexts)

Criticisms of Critical Theory

Cont.

Postmodern critical theory is the first narrative to pose

a possible utopian future not as a determinate outcome

of nature-like social laws but rather as one conceivable
discursive accomplishment among many
Critical theory can either be a museum piece or a living
medium of political self-expression (Agger, 1976:19)
Critical theory addresses the relations among schooling,
education, culture, society, economy, and governance
Critical theory has also been applied to issues related to
crime and delinquency
In addition , critical theory draws its orientation from a
broad range of disciplines, including linguistics,
psychology, sociology, philosophy, and Marxism
(Groves and Sampson, 1986:538)