Flexible

By
D.K.Nanda

Pavement

Geometric Design

Geometric design of Highways

Geometric design deals with visible elements of a
highway. Sound geometric design results in
economical operation of vehicles and ensures safety.
The Geometric design essentially consists of the
design of :
Horizontal Alignment.
Vertical Alignment
Cross profile.

Horizontal Alignment
The selection of road alignment is broadly based on the

following:
a)Maximum comfort to road user.
b)Least social and environmental adverse impact.
c)Least displacement and loss of public property ,
monuments , religious structures
d)Location of required drainage structures.
e)Availability of land
f)Topography

Horizontal Alignment Contd.

As road alignment changes in direction are often
necessary owing to restrictions imposed by
considerations discussed earlier, it is accomplished by
introducing Horizontal and transition curves in the
alignment.
The general principles to be followed while designing
these curves is to coordinate both the horizontal and
vertical alignments. Some of the important
considerations followed are:

Horizontal Alignment Contd

Sharp horizontal curves should be avoided at or near the
apex of pronounced summit/sag vertical curves from
safety considerations.
Vertical and horizontal curves should coincide as far as
possible and their length should be more or less equal. If
this is difficult for any reason, the horizontal curve should
be somewhat longer than the vertical curve
The degree of curvature should be in proper balance
with the gradients.

Horizontal Alignment Contd

Short curves gives appearance of kinks, particularly for
small deflection angles, and should be avoided. The
curves should be sufficiently long and should have
suitable transitions to provide pleasing appearance.
As a general rule, curve lengths should be at least 150
meters for a deflection angle of 5 degrees and should be
increased by 30 meters for each one degree decrease in
the deflection angle . For deflection angle less than one
degree, no curve is required to be designed.

Horizontal Alignment Contd

Reverse curves may be needed in difficult terrain. It
should be ensured that there is sufficient length between
the two curves for introduction of requisite transition
curves.
Curves in the same direction separated by short
tangents should be avoided as far as possible in the
interest of aesthetics and safety and replaced by a single
curve. If this is not feasible, a tangent length
corresponding to 10 seconds travel time must at least be
ensured between the two curves.

Horizontal Alignment Contd.

Compound curves may be used in difficult topography
only when it is impossible to fit in a single circular curve .
To ensure a smooth transition from one curve to the other,
the radius of the flatter curve should not be
disproportional to the radius of the sharper curve with a
ratio of 1.5:1 as the limiting value.
To avoid distortion in appearance , the horizontal
alignment should be coordinated carefully with the
longitudinal profile, keeping in mind that the road is a
three dimensional entity.

Horizontal Curves
In general horizontal curves consists of a circular
portion flanked by spiral transitions at both ends.
Design speed, super elevation and coefficient of side
friction affect the design of circular curves.
Length of transition curves is determined on the basis
of rate of change of centrifugal acceleration or the rate of
change of super elevation.

Super elevation
Super elevation required on horizontal curves is calculated
using the following formula, which assumes that centrifugal force
corresponding to three-fourth the design speed is balanced by
super elevation and the rest counteracted by side friction.
e=V/225R where,
e= super elevation, V=design speed in Km/hr. R=radius in meters
The super elevation obtained from the above equation should
however be kept limited to the following values.
a)In plain & rolling terrain
7%
b)In snow bound areas
7%
c)In hilly areas not bound by snow
10%

Super elevation contd

When the value of super elevation obtained by using the
formula is less than the road camber , then the normal
cambered section is continued on the curved portion
without providing any super elevation.
The normal cambered section of the road is changed
into super elevated section in two stages.
First stage is the removal of adverse camber in the outer
half of the pavement.
In the second stage, super elevation is gradually built up
over the full width of the carriageway so that required
super elevation is available at the beginning of the circular
curve.

Circular curves
On a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force is balanced
by the combined effects of super elevation and side
friction . From the basic equation of equilibrium it can
be found that
R = V/127(e+f) where, V=speed in Km/hour,
e = Super elevation , f = coefficient of side friction
between tyre and pavement( taken as 0.15) ,R= Radius of
circular curve in meter
Based on this equation, and the maximum permissible
values of super elevation, the radius of circular curve
corresponding to design speed is worked out.

Transition curves
Transition curves are necessary for a vehicle to have
smooth entry from a straight section into a circular curve.
The transition curves also permit gradual application of
super elevation at the horizontal curves. Spiral curves are
generally used as transition curves.
The minimum length of transition curves required is
determined from the following two considerations and the
larger of the two values is adopted for design.

Transition curves contd

The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration should not
cause discomfort to drivers. From this consideration, the
length of transition curve is given by
Ls = 0.0215 V/CR, where Ls = Length of transition
curve in meter.
V = Speed in Km/hour , R = Radius of circular curve in
meter.
C = 80/(75+V) subject to maximum of 0.8 and minimum
of 0.5

Transition curve contd.

The rate of change of super elevation should be such as
not to cause discomfort to travellers or to make the road
appear unsightly . The rate of change should not be
steeper than 1 in 150 in plain and rolling terrain, and 1 in
60 in mountainous/steep terrain.
The formula for minimum length of transition curve on
this basis are
For plain and rolling terrain, Ls = 2.7 V/R
For Mountainous / steep terrain Ls = 1.0 V/R where
R = Radius of circular curve in meters, V = Speed in
Km/hour, Ls = Length of transition curve in meters.

Vertical Alignment
The vertical alignment should provide for a smooth
longitudinal profile consistent with the category of the
road and lay of the terrain.
Grade changes should not be too frequent as to cause
kinks and visual discontinuities in the profile
Desirably there should be no change in grade within a
distance of 150 meters.

Vertical alignment Contd

A short valley curve within an otherwise continuous
profile is not desirable and can be hazardous.
Two vertical curves in the same direction separated by a
short tangent should be avoided and preferably replaced
by a single long curve.
The longitudinal profile should be coordinated suitably
with the horizontal alignment

Gradients
Grades should be carefully selected keeping in view the
design speed, terrain conditions and nature of traffic. The
recommended values of gradients for different classes of
terrain are as below.
Terrain
Plain/ Rolling

Ruling
Gradient
3.3%

Limiting
Gradient.
5%

Exceptional
Gradient.
6.7%

Mountainous
Elevation>3000m

5%

6%

7%

Mountainous
Elevation <3000m

6%

7%

8%

Gradient Contd
On un kerbed pavement s in embankment, near-level
grades are not objectionable when the pavement has
sufficient camber to drain the storm water laterally.
In cut sections or where the pavement is provided with
kerbs, it is necessary that the road should have some
gradient for efficient drainage.
Desirable minimum gradient for this purpose is 0.5
percent if the side drains are lined and 1 percent if these
are unlined.

Vertical Curves
Vertical curves are introduced for smooth transition at

grade changes. The vertical curves are designed as square

parabolas.
The length of vertical curve is controlled by sight
distance requirements, but curves with greater lengths are
aesthetically better.
Design speed
50
80
100

Grade change in % not Minimum length of

requiring vertical curve Vertical curve in mts.
1.0
0.6
0.5

30.00
50.00
60.00

Summit Curves
The length of summit curves is governed by the choice
of sight distance. The length is calculated on the basis of
the following formula.
For safe stopping sight distance:
a)When length of curve exceeds the required sight
distance i.e. L>S
L = NS/4.4 where N= Algebraic difference between
the two grades, L = Length of curve in meters , S = Sight
distance in meters.

Summit Curves
b) When L is less than S

L = 2S 4.4/N
For Intermediate or overtaking sight distance
a)When L is greater than S, L = NS/9.6
a) When L is less than S,

L = 2S 9.6/N

Valley Curves
The length of valley curves should be such that for night
travel, the headlight beam distance is equal to the stopping
sight distance . The length of the valley curve is calculated
as under.
When L is greater than S
a)L = NS/(1.5+0.035S)
When L is less than S
b)L = 2S (1.5+0.035S)/N where.
N = Algebraic difference between the two grades,
L = Length of curve in meters.
S = Stopping sight distance in meters.

Design of Pavement

Pavement
Pavement is part of the road crust
above the sub grade/formation .
Bituminous Layer
Granular
Granular Base Base

Granular Sub base

Sub grade

Function of Pavement
The function of the pavement is to
carry heavy wheel loads of vehicles
and to transfer the same over a wide
area of the sub grade soil permitting
the deformations within elastic or
allowable range.

Pavement Classification
Pavements are broadly classified into two
categories namely:
i. Flexible Pavement.
ii.Rigid Pavement.
The choice of Pavement to be adopted for
construction for any particular section of
road is dependent on factors such as rainfall
in the area, availability of budget etc.

Components of Flexible Pavement

The components of flexible pavement are as
under:
a. Granular sub base
b. Granular Base
c. Wearing course.
The thickness of above components are
dependent mainly on the design life of
pavement,traffic volume, and axle loads etc.

Traffic
For the purpose of design of flexible pavements only the
number of commercial vehicles of laden weight of 3.0Mt or
more and their axle load is considered.
The initial daily traffic for any road is normally based on
7days 24 hour traffic count.
An estimate of likely traffic growth rate is obtained by
studying the past trends. In the absence of any past trends an
average value of 7.50 percent is adopted for design.

Design of Flexible Pavement based

on IRC-37
The thickness of Pavement is dependent on
the following factors:
a)Traffic volume defined in terms of
cumulative standard axles(8160kg) to be
carried during the design life.
b)The CBR value of the Sub grade

Design Life
It is considered appropriate that roads in rural areas to be
designed for a design life of 10-15 years.
Initially due to financial reasons if it is not possible to
construct the full depth of pavement at the same time, stage
construction techniques is resorted to in such cases as the
traffic increases.

Computation of traffic
The design traffic is considered in terms of cumulative
number of standard axles to be carried during the design life
of the pavement.
The following equation is used for the computation:
N = 365xA{(1+r) - 1} x F xDxL/r Where,
N=Cumulative no of standard axles to be catered for
design
A=Initial traffic, in the year of construction,in terms of
number of commercial vehicles per day duly modified to
account for lane distribution.

Computation of traffic

r = Annual growth rate of commercial traffic.

a = Design life in years
F = Vehicle damage factor( Number of standard
axles per commercial axle)
D = Direction distribution factor
L = Lane distribution factor

Distribution of traffic
Single lane road(3.75m width): Traffic tends to be more
channelised on single lane roads than on two lane roads
and to allow for this concentration of wheel load
repetitions the design should be based on the total number
of commercial vehicles per day in both directions
multiplied by 2.
Intermediate lane roads( 5.5m width): The design should
be based on total number of commercial vehicles per day
in both directions multiplied by 1.5

Distribution of traffic
Two lane single carriageway roads : The design
should be based on 75 percent of the total number of
commercial vehicles in both directions.
Four lane single carriageway roads : The design
should be based on 40 percent of the total number of
commercial vehicles in both directions.
Dual carriageway roads : The design of dual two lane
carriageway roads should be based on 75 percent of the
number of commercial vehicles in each direction. The
distribution factor shall be reduced by 20 percent for
each additional lane.

Vehicle Damage Factor

The damage factor is a multiplier for converting a
commercial vehicle into equivalent standard axle load
repetitions. The factors are arrived at from axle load surveys
of commercial vehicles and the AASHO axle load
equivalence factors . The VDF varies for different class of
roads . This may be computed from axle load
measurements. Where sufficient information is not
available, values as given in next slide may be adopted.

Indicative VDF Values

Initial No of

Terrain VDF
VDF
VDF
Values
Values
Values
Commercial
Unsurface Thin
Thick
vehicle per
d
bituminou bituminou
day
s
s
surfacing surfacing
Less than
Hilly
0.50
0.75
150

Rolling
1.50
1.75

Plain
2.00
2.25
150-1500
Hilly

1.00
1.25

Rolling
2.00
2.25

Plain
2.50
2.75
More than
Hilly

1.25
1.50
1500

Rolling
2.25
2.50

Pavement Thickness calculation

Once the cumulative standard axles are found out, the

same is converted to million standard axles.

From the pavement thickness design chart given in IRC37 for different CBR values of sub grade , the total
pavement thickness is calculated.
From the total thickness of pavement, the thickness of
different layers are calculated using the thickness
combination block given in IRC-37 (Fig-2)

Construction
The construction of a highway essentially involves the
construction of the following layers of pavement and
under laying embankment.
Bituminous wearing course
Bituminous base course
Granular base course
Granular sub base
Selected sub grade
Embankment

Resources
The resources required for the construction of a

highway are broadly classified under the following

three heads.
Construction Plants & Equipments
Construction Material
Manpower

Major Plants & Equipments

For Embankment/Sub grade:
a)Excavator
b)Dumper
c)Dozer
d)Motor Grader
e)Vibratory Roller
f)Tractor fitted with rotavator
g) Related Laboratory Equipments

Major Plants & Equipments

For

Granular Sub Base:

a)Wheel Loader
b)Dumper
c)Motor Grader
d)Water Tanker
e)Vibratory Roller
f)Related Laboratory Equipments

Plants & Equipments

For

Wet Mix Macadam

a)Wheel Loader
b)Pugmil
c)Dumper
d)Sensor Paver
e)Vibratory Roller
f)Water Tanker
g)Related Laboratory equipments

Plants & Equipments

For Bituminous works:
a)Hot Mix Plant
b)Wheel Loader
c)Dumper
d)Sensor Paver
e)Tandem Vibratory Roller
f)Pneumatic Tyre Roller
g)Bitumen Sprayer
h)Water Tanker
i)Asphalt cutter
j)Related Laboratory Equipments

Plants & Equipments

For

Concrete Works

a)Batch mix plant

b)Wheel Loader
c)Transit Mixers
d)Concrete Pump
e)Needle Vibrators
f)Water Tanker
g)Related Laboratory Equipments

General Plants & Equipments

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)

Stone Crusher
DG Sets
Articulated Trailor
Light Masts
Mobile Service Unit
Bar shearing & Cutting Machine
Lathe
Circular saw
Welding Equipment
Conveyance Vehicle & Ambulance
Magazine

Construction Material
The major construction material involved in construction of
Highway are
Soil/Fly ash
Stone aggregates
Cement & Lime
Steel and HT strands
Bitumen & Bitumen Emulsion
Bearings & Expansion Joints
Road furniture such as Thermoplastic road marking, Metal
beam crash barrier, Road signage, Kilometer stones, Roadway
indicators, Road studs, etc.

Manpower
The typical organization of Manpower at a project site are as
follows:
Employer representative: Project Director & supporting staff.
Engineer & his representative appointed by the Employer.
Contractors representative & his supporting staff.
Contractors skilled & Unskilled labor.

Contractual pre requisites for

Construction
Following the award of contract and prior to commencement of
construction at site , the following are the pre requisites to be
fulfilled:
Notification of Engineer by the Employer.
Mobilization of Engineers representative.
Mobilization of Contractors representative & supporting staff.
Handing over of site by the Engineer to Contractor.
Submission of Construction program by the Contractor
Approval of Construction Program by the Engineer.
Mobilization of resources by the contractor
Engineers notification for commencement.
Issue of drawings by the Engineer.

Sequence of Construction
Setting out

Clearing & Grubbing

Earthworks
Cross Drainage structures
Granular sub base
Granular base
Asphalt works
Protective works
Road furniture.

Setting out
This essentially
Control Points.

includes establishment of:

Working bench marks.

Road center line on the ground.
Existing ground levels & Cross sections.
Method statements for different items of work.
Field laboratory.
Borrow areas and stone Quarry.
Establishment of plants & their successful trial.
Arrangement for traffic safety & Control.

Clearing & Grubbing

This includes cutting of trees , removal of stumps , bushes
,shrubs , roots , grass , weeds , & top organic soil not exceeding
150mm of thickness which in the opinion of the Engineer are
unsuitable for incorporation in the works , from the area of road
land containing road embankment , drains, cross drainage
structures and such other areas as may be specified in the drawings
or approved by the Engineer.
Clearing & Grubbing is performed in advance of earthwork
operations.
The equipments deployed for clearing and grubbing is a crawler
mounted dozer of adequate capacity having ripper attachment/ or a
hydraulic excavator with adequate dumpers for disposal of
unsuitable materials.

Method Statement
First the toe line of the embankment after allowing for drains is
marked on the ground using pegs/lime powder by taking
measurements from the road centre line.
Once this is done, the trees/ structures falling within this limit is
identified & marked for their removal.
Pre measurements of the tree girths/ dimension of structures to
be removed are then recorded prior to their removal.
A suitable equipment such as an excavator/Dozer is deployed
for removal of the trees/structures and the materials are then
disposed off at designated location using dumpers/tractors as
approved by the Engineer.

Embankment & Sub grade-Materials

Materials: The material to be used in embankment/sub grade shall
be soil , moorum , gravel , or a mixture of these and shall be free
from logs, stumps , roots rubbish or any other material likely to
deteriorate or affect the stability of the embankment/Sub grade . The
material to be used in embankment/sub grade shall satisfy the
following general requirements:
Liquid limit < 70.
Plastic limit < 45.
Free swelling Index < 50% for embankment and 0% for sub grade.
Maximum size < 75mm for embankment & 50mm for sub grade.
MDD > 1.55 gm/cc for embankment & 1.78 gm/cc for sub grade.
CBR > Design CBR as specified in the contract for sub grade.

Embankment & Sub grade

General requirements
The materials to be used shall be from approved sources with
preference given to materials becoming available from nearby
roadway excavation if any.
Arrangement of borrow areas complying requirements of
Ministry of environment and forest in respect of its excavation.
Collection of representative sample from the identified borrow
areas and its testing in the site laboratory for its suitability.
Submission of test results in respect of MDD & CBR to the
Engineer for his approval.
Approval of the borrow area by the Engineer for use.
Testing of representative samples of the existing ground within
embankment limits ascertain its suitability for reuse and MDD.

Construction Operation
After the site has been cleared, the limit of embankment/Sub grade
is marked with pegs at suitable intervals on the ground after
allowing extra 500mm for trimming of embankment slope at a latter
date to ensure that the remaining material is to the desired density
and conforms to specified side slope.
The original ground is then levelled , watered and then compacted
by rolling so as to achieve minimum dry density of 95%.
If the ground forms a part of the sub grade and the materials within
the subgrade limit is suitable but does not have 97% compaction
,then the ground is loosened upto subgrade bottom, watered and then
compacted in layers not exceeding 200mm thickness to 97% of
maximum dry density . If the materials within the subgrade limit is
not suitable, then the same is removed and replaced by suitable
materials and compacted in layers of 200mm thickness to 97% MDD.

Construction Operation contd..

Once the ground supporting the embankment/ sub grade is tested
and cleared, then approved materials from borrow areas are
excavated and transported by dumpers to the construction site.
Materials are then dumped in pre determined locations based on
the volume requirement of the layer under construction taking into
account the compaction factor, loose volume carried by each
dumper so as not to exceed 200mm compacted thickness of the
layer.
The materials so dumped are then roughly spread to a more or
less uniform thickness covering the entire width of the layer under
construction by the help of a crawler mounted dozer of adequate
capacity.

Construction operation Contd

A motor grader is then used to give a finish grading of the
material to allow for easy movement of water tanker on top of the
layer for watering if the natural moisture of the material is found to
be below the OMC requirement.
Depending on the natural moisture content determined using a
rapid moisture meter & the optimum moisture content of the
material determined earlier in the laboratory and approved by the
Engineer, either the material is allowed to dry or water is added
using a water tanker fitted with a distributor for controlled
application of water in required quantity so as to achieve OMC.
The layer is then left undisturbed for some time for the applied
surface water to percolate through the layer.

Grading of Embankment Layer

Grading of Sub grade Layer

Construction Operation Contd

Then the layer is scarified and mixed thoroughly using tractor
fitted with a rotavator so as to ensure uniform mixing of water.
A motor grader is then used to finish the layer surface to desired
level and cross fall with the help of level stakes fixed on each side
of the layer at regular intervals of 20m/10m .
Rolling is then started using a vibrating roller of adequate
capacity from the lower side to the upper side of the layer covering
the entire width of the layer without vibration to ensure material
are packed in their place.
Then required number of vibratory passes as determined during
the trial stretch are given and the rolling is suspended with a final
plain pass.

Compaction of Embankment Layer

Construction Operation Contd

Density measurements are then taken using either a Nuclear
density gauge or sand replacement method as approved by the
Engineer. If the observed densities are found to be above the
required
Percentages of MDD, then subsequent layer construction is
continued.
In the event of density measurements falling below the required %
compaction, then the layer is scarified to full depth using a motor
grader fitted with a ripper or a Dozer fitted with a ripper attachment.
The entire process starting from grading, watering and rolling is
repeated till the densities are achieved.
The sub grade is then checked for levels and compared with the

Granular Sub base

Material: The material to be used for the work shall be natural
sand , moorum ,gravel ,crushed stone or combination thereof
depending upon the required grading. The grading to be adopted
can be any one of the grading specified in Table 400-1 or 400-2 and
is contract specific.
The material shall have 10 percent fines value of 50KN or more.
Water absorption <2%
Liquid limit < 25%
Plasticity Index < 6%
CBR>30 for grading-I, 25 for grading-II and 20 for grading-III
Sand equivalent value > 50
Minimum % compaction: 98% of MDD

Spreading & Compaction

Prior to laying of sub base material, the sub grade surface shall be
prepared by lightly sprinkling with water and rolled with two passes
of a vibratory roller.
Once the sub grade surface is ready, the sub base material of
required quantity conforming to specified grading shall be dumped
uniformly over the entire width of the sub grade within the toe line
marked with lime powder to prevent spillage of material beyond the
toe line.
The material is then roughly spread over the entire bed using a
motor grader.
Required quantity of water is then applied uniformly over the
surface of sub base by a water tanker having facility for controlled
application of water.

Grading of Granular sub base layer

Compaction of GSB

Spreading & Compaction

The sub base is then scarified with the help of a motor grader for
uniform mixing of water and then checked of water content using a
rapid moisture meter. Once the moisture content is found to be
within +1% to -2% of OMC , the material is then finished to
desired level and cross fall by the help of a motor grader.
Immediately thereafter the rolling shall start with a vibratory
roller of 80 to 100KN from the lower edge and proceed towards
the upper edge .
Each pass of the roller shall uniformly overlap not less than one
third of the track made in the preceding pass.
During rolling the grade and the cross fall shall be checked and
any high spots or depression corrected by removing or adding fresh
material. The speed of the roller shall not exceed 5 Km/hour.

Spreading and compaction contd

Rolling shall be continued till the density achieved is atleast
98% of the maximum dry density for the material determined in the
laboratory.
The surface of the material on completion of compaction shall be
closed with a final plain pass of the roller.
Once the compaction is achieved, the bed is tested for levels and
compared with the design level with tolerance of +10mm to
-20mm.
The bed is also checked for surface regularity with a 3m long
straight edge where the allowable difference between the road
surface and the underside of straight edge when placed parallel with
or perpendicular to the center line of the road is 8mm.

Wet Mixed Macadam- Base Course

Material: Coarse aggregates shall be crushed stone . The
aggregates shall conform to the physical requirements as given
below:
Loss angeles abrasion value Maximum 40%
or
Aggregate Impact value
- Maximum 30%
Combined flakiness and
Elongation Indices(Total)
- Maximum 30%
Water absorption
- < 2%
Plasticity Index for material
finer than 425 micron
- Not exceeding 6
Layer thickness: Minimum 75mm & maximum 200mm
Minimum % compaction : 98% of MDD

Grading of Aggregates for WMM

IS Sieve
53mm
45mm
22.4mm
11.2mm
4.75mm
2.36mm
600 micron
75 micron

% passing by weight
100
95-100
60-80
40-60
25-40
15-30
8 22
0-8

Production of Mix - WMM

Wet mix macadam is produced in a pugmil of suitable capacity
having provision for controlled application of water and forced
positive mixing arrangement.
Optimum moisture content for mixing shall be determined in
accordance with IS:2720 after replacing the aggregate fraction
retained on 22.4 mm sieve with material of 4,75mm to 22.4mm
size.
While adding water in preparation of mix in a pugmil , due
allowance is made for evaporation losses considering the time lag
between laying of mix and the production of mix.
The proportioning of the mix in the pugmil is achieved by
calibrating the gate openings of the feeder bin which is then
maintained throughout for the production, excepting little
adjustments for variation in gradation of individual constituents.

Transportation, Laying & Compaction

The mix produced in the pugmil is directly discharged to a
dumper placed directly below the discharge hopper which then
carries the mix to the place of laying.
The mix is then discharged by the dumper gradually onto the
receiving hopper of the paver. The conveyor then discharges the
mix to the auger box which is then mixed and spread by the auger
over the entire width by the spiral rotary action of the auger.
The screed of the paver which follows the augers gives initial
compaction to the mix through vibration of the screed and then
pushes forward any extra quantities to achieve the required pre
compaction level.

Laying & Compaction Contd

The movement of the paver in the longitudinal direction is
controlled by the operator .while the profile and cross fall of the
paver screed is controlled by the sensor arms of the paver on either
side which moves over the string line fixed to the desired levels
taking into account the design level and camber/super elevation.
The level of the laid surface is immediately checked from time
to time as the paving continues and deficiencies if any are
immediately rectified either by trimming the high spots or adding
fresh mix at low spots.
Once the mix has been laid to required thickness, grade and
cross fall, the same is compacted with a vibratory roller of 80 to
100KN static weight.

WMM Laying & Compaction

Laying & Compaction Contd..

Rolling is commenced from the lower edge and progressed
gradually towards the upper edge with uniform over lapping each
preceding track by at least one third width until the entire surface is
rolled with the pre determined no of passes as established during
trial section to ensure that desired compaction of 98% is achieved.
After final compaction of wet mix macadam course, the surface
is checked for density, levels and surface regularity whose
permissible values are:
Percentage compaction: Minimum 98% of maximum dry density.
Tolerance in surface level: +10mm to -10mm.
Surface regularity with 3m straight edge: Maximum 8mm.

Prime Coat
Material: The choice of bituminous primer is dependent on the
porosity of the surface to be primed as detailed below.
Type of surface

Viscosity in
centistoke @ 60C

Rate of application
in Kg per 10 sqm.

Low porosity

30 60

6 to 9

Medium Porosity

70 140

9 to 12

High Porosity

250 500

12 to 15

Cleaning of WMM surface for Priming

Prime Coat
The primer shall be bitumen emulsion, complying with IS 8887
of a type and grade as specified in the contract.
The use of medium curing cutback as per IS 217 shall be
restricted only for sites at sub-zero temperatures.
The surface to be primed shall be swept clean of dust and loose
particles , care being taken not to disturb the inter locked
aggregates. This is best achieved when the surface layer is slightly
moist . For this purpose a mechanical bromer is used to loosen the
dust from the surface which is then blown out using a compressor
mounted on a tractor.
A bitumen sprayer (calibrated earlier for application pressure
and speed of movement) carrying the required primer is then used
to prime the surface. The rate of actual spray is then found out by
the tray test . The primed surface is allowed to cure for at least 24
hours

Tack Coat
Material: The binder used for tack coat shall be a bitumen
emulsion complying with IS 8887 of a type and grade as specified
in the contract.
The use of cutback bitumen as per IS 217 shall be restricted only
for sites at sub-zero temperatures.
The surface on which tack coat is to be applied shall be clean
and free from dust, dirt, and any extraneous material.
Immediately before the application of tack coat, the surface shall
be swept clean with a mechanical broom, and high pressure air jet.
The application of tack coat shall be at the rate specified in the
contract.
The rate of application of tack coat for various types of surface
shall be as per the table 500-2.

Table 500-2(MORTH specification)

Type of surface

Rate of application in Kg/m

Normal bituminous surface

0.2 to 0.25

Hungry bituminous surface

0.25 to 0.30

Granular surface treated with primer

0.25 to 0.30

Granular base not primed

0.35 to 0.40

Cement concrete pavement

0.30 to 0.35

Tack Coat
The normal range of spraying temperature for bituminous
emulsion shall be 20C to 70C and for a cutback 50C to 80C if
rapid curing/setting material is used.
Where the surface to receive an overlay is a freshly laid
bituminous surface which has not been subjected to traffic, or
contaminated by dust, a tack coat is not mandatory where the
overlay is completed within two days.
The tack coat is applied by the help of a bitumen sprayer
calibrated to required application pressure and speed of movement
for the desired rate of application.
The tack coat is left to cure until all the volatiles have evaporated
before any subsequent construction is started.

Base course
Dense Bituminous Macadam
Scope: Construction of dense graded bituminous
macadam(DBM) for use in base course in single or multiple
layers on a previously prepared base or sub base.
The thickness of a single layer shall be between 50mm to
100mm as stipulated in the contract.
The minimum compaction requirement shall be 98% of marshal
density.

Material
Bitumen: The bitumen shall be paving bitumen of penetration
grade 60/70(S65) or 80/100(S90) as specified in the contract and
shall conform with the Indian standard IS:73. Modified bitumen
such as CRMB or PMB may be used if specified in the contract.
Coarse aggregate: The coarse aggregate shall consists of crushed
rock retained on 2.36mm sieve . The aggregates shall be clean,
hard ,durable, of cubical shape, free from dust organic or other
deleterious substance . If the aggregates have poor affinity for
bitumen, then the bitumen shall be treated with an approved anti
striping agent .

Material for DBM

Fine aggregate: Fine aggregate shall consists of crushed or
naturally occurring mineral material passing the 2.36mm sieve and
retained on 75 micron sieve.
Fine aggregates shall be clean, hard,durable and free from soft
or friable material, organic or other deleterious matter.
The fine aggregates shall have a sand equivalent value of not
less than 50 when tested in accordance with the requirement of
IS:2720 part 37.
The plasticity index of the fraction passing 425 micron sieve
shall not exceed 4 when tested as per IS:2720 part 5.

Coarse aggregate for DBM

The coarse aggregate shall satisfy the physical requirements as
specified below.
Aggregate Impact value: Maximum 27%
Los Angeles abrasion value: Maximum 35%
Combined flakiness & elongation Index: Maximum 30%
Water absorption : Maximum 2%
Stripping value: Minimum retained coating 95%
Water sensitivity: Retained tensile strength of minimum 80%
Grain size analysis: Maximum 5% passing 75 micron sieve.
Soundness: With sodium sulphate- Maximum 12%
With Magnesium sulphate- Maximum 18%

Filler
Filler shall consists if finely divided mineral matter such as
rock dust, hydrated lime or cement as stipulated in the contract.
The filler shall be free from organic impurities and have a
plasticity index not greater than 4. The plasticity index limit shall
not apply if the filler is lime or cement.
Cement or hydrated lime is not required when the lime stone
aggregate is used.
Where the aggregate fail to meet the requirements of water
sensitivity test , then 2% by total weight of aggregate, of hydrated
lime shall be used.
The filler shall conform to the grading requirements as per table
500-9 of MORTH specification.

Table 500-9 of MORTH specification

IS Sieve

Cumulative % passing by
weight of total aggregate.

600 micron

100

300 micron

95-100

75 micron

85-100

Aggregate grading & binder content.

The combined grading of coarse and fine aggregates and added
filler for the particular mixture when tested in accordance with
IS:2386 part I shall fall within the limits of table 500-10 for dense
bituminous macadam grading I or II as specified in the contract.
The type and quantity of bitumen, and appropriate layer
thickness is also indicated for each mixture type.

Table 500-10
Grading
I
II
Nominal aggregate
40 mm
25 mm
Layer thickness
80-100mm
50-75mm
IS Sieve
Cumulative % by weight of total aggregate passing
45
100
37.5
95-100
100
26.5
63-93
90-100
19
71-95
13.2
55-75
56-80
4.75
38-54
38-54
2.36
28-42
28-42
0.30
07-21
07-21
0.075
02-08
02-08
Bitumen content %
Minimum 4%
Minimum 4.5%
By mass of total mix
Bitumen grade
S65 or S90
S65 or S90

Design criterion-DBM
The mixture shall meet the following requirements:
TABLE: 500-11

Marshall stability at 60C: Minimum 9 KN

Flow : Between 2mm to 4mm
Compaction level:75 blows on each face of the specimen
Percent air voids: 3 to 6
Percent air voids filled with bitumen(VFB): 65 to 75
Percent voids in mineral aggregate: As per table 500-12

Table 500-12
Nominal maximum
Minimum VMA % related to design
Particle size in mm
air voids in %

3%
4%
5%

9.5
14
15
16
12.5
13
14
15
19
12
13
14
25
11
12
13
37.5
10
11
12

Binder Content
The binder content shall be optimized to achieve the
requirement of the mixture as stated earlier.
The marshal method for determining the optimum binder content
is adopted as described in asphalt institute manual MS2 by
replacing the aggregate retained on 26.5mm sieve by the
aggregates passing the 26.5mm sieve and retained on 22.4mm
sieve.
Where the maximum nominal size of aggregate used is 40mm,
the modified marshal method described in MS2 is used.In this case
the minimum stability value as stated earlier is multiplied by 2.25
and the minimum flow shall be 3 mm.

Job Mix Formula

The job mix formula submitted to the Engineer for approval shall
contain the following details.
Source & Location of materials
Proportion of all materials expressed as follows.
Binder type and % by weight of total mixture.
Coarse aggregate/Fine aggregate/Mineral filler as % by weight of
total aggregate including mineral filler.
A single definite % passing each sieve for the mixed aggregate.
The individual grading of individual aggregate fractions and the
proportion of each in the combined grading.
The marshal test results as given in table 500-11
When the mixing plant is a batch type plant, the individual weight
of each type of aggregate, and binder per batch.
The results of physical characteristics of the aggregate to be used.
Mixing temperature and compacting temperature.

Plant trials
Once the laboratory job mix formula is approved, plant trials is
carried out at the mixer to establish that the plant can be set up to
produce a uniform mix conforming to the approved job mix
formula.
The permissible variations in the individual percentages of the
various ingredients in the actual mix from the job mix formula to
be used shall be within the limits specified in Table 500-13.
Once the plant trials have demonstrated the capability of the
plant and the trials are approved, the laying operation can
commence.

Table 500-13
(Permissible variation from JMF)
Aggregate passing
sieve size
19mm or larger
13.2mm & 9.5mm
4.75mm
2.36,1.18 & 0.6mm
300& 150 micron
75 micron
Binder content
Mixing temperature

Permissible variation from JMF

Base course
wearing course
8%
7%
6%
5%
4%
2%
0.3%
10C

7%
6%
5%
4%
3%
1.5%
0.3%
10C

Laying trials
Once the plant trials are approved, the laying trials are carried
out to demonstrate that the proposed mix can be successfully laid
and compacted.
The laying trials are carried out in an area not forming part of the
permanent works.
The area of laying trial shall be minimum 100 sqm of
construction similar to that of the project road, and it shall be in all
respect, particularly compaction, the same as the project
construction on which the bituminous material is to be laid.
The density of finished paving layer shall be determined by
taking cores after 24 hours.
Once the laying trial is approved, the same plant & methodology
is then followed in laying of the material on the project.

Construction Operation
The mix produced from the Hot mix plant is discharged on to the
dumper standing below the hopper in batches till the dumper is
filled to its capacity. The mix is then covered with a tarpaulin to
avoid contamination with dust during the travel. This also prevents
the mix to retain its temperature during transit.
The area to be paved are primed in advance and are swept clean
from dust and other extraneous material by using a mechanical
broom , and a jet of compressed air before the commencement of
paving.
Level stakes are fixed on either side of the carriageway to be
paved to required level . The top of the stakes are tied with a string
line which is stretched to avoid sagging between the stakes using
winches fixed to the ground at both ends.

Preparation for DBM Laying

Construction Operation
The Paver is then set to the required screed level using packing
below the screed. The heating of the screed is then started to bring
the screed temperature above 100C prior to paving to avoid sticking
of mix to the screed.
The sensors attached to the paver are then set on the string line on
both sides for level and cross fall control.
Once the paver setting is complete, the dumper carrying the mix is
brought inside the paving area after checking the mix temperature
for its acceptance.
The dumper then gradually unloads the mix into the paver hopper
wherefrom the mix is conveyed to the auger box through the belt
conveyor.
While paving the paver pushes the dumper forward while the
dumper unloads the mix gradually into the paver hopper.

Laying & Compaction of DBM

Compaction of DBM

DBM Rolling by PTR

Construction Operation
The mix in the auger box is then spread over the entire width of
the bed through the rotary spiral action of the augers.
As the paver moves forward, the screed moves over the mix
imparting initial compaction through vibration of the screed and the
tamping bar attached to the screed. The screed gives a smooth finish
to the surface of the mix and pushes forward the extra material .
While the paving continues, grades and cross fall are checked
with respect to a string tied across the level stakes facing each other
on either side by taking dip measurements.
The actual levels of the paved surface is then compared with the
corresponding design level by allowing for the compaction factor.
Points found beyond tolerance are then immediately corrected by
trimming high points and adding hot mix at low points.

Construction operation
Tandem smooth wheeled vibratory roller having controlled water
sprinkling arrangement over drums shall be used for rolling the hot
mix.
The rolling shall immediately start with a initial plain pass of the
tandem roller to give a set to the mix in its position.
Rolling shall start in the longitudinal direction from the lower
edge and proceed towards the upper edge with at least one third
overlap of each adjacent track . The speed of the roller shall not
exceed 5Km/hr.
After the initial plain pass is complete, subsequent rolling is
continued with vibratory passes until no roller mark is visible on the

Construction operation
A pneumatic tyre roller(PTR) is also used for rolling along with
tandem roller . The PTR imparts kneading action to the surface of
the mix and thus gives a close finish to the surface.
The rolling is terminated with a final plain pass of the tandem
roller once no roller mark is visible on the surface.
All the rolling operation shall be completed before the
temperature of the mix falls below 100C.
After 24 hours of laying , cores are taken from the surface for
determination of density and the laid surface is checked for
surface levels and surface regularities . The permitted tolerance in
surface level being 6mm and 6mm for surface regularity.

Extraction of DBM Core

Wearing course-Bituminous Concrete

Scope: Construction of bituminous concrete for use in wearing
course in single/multiple layers over a previously prepared
bituminous bound surface.
The thickness of a single layer shall be between 25mm to
100mm in thickness as stipulated in the contract.
The minimum percent compaction shall be 98% of marshal
density.

Materials for Bituminous Concrete

Bitumen: The bitumen shall be paving bitumen of penetration
grade S65 or as stipulated in the contract complying with
IS:73.Modified bitumen such as crumbed rubber modified
bitumen(CRMB) or polymer modified bitumen(PMB) may be used
if specified in the contract.
Coarse aggregate: The coarse aggregate shall be crushed stone
aggregates satisfying the physical requirements as detailed in table
500-17.

Table 500-17
Physical requirements of C.A. for BC
Grain size : Maximum 5% passing 75 micron sieve.
Combined flakiness & elongation index: Maximum 30%
Los angeles abrasion value: Maximum 30%
Aggregate impact value: Maximum 24%
Polished stone value: Minimum 55
Soundness: with sodium sulphate : Maximum 12%
with magnesium sulphate : Maximum 18%
Water absorption: Maximum 2%
Stripping: Minimum retained coating 95%
Water sensitivity: Retained tensile strength of Minimum 80%

Material for Bituminous concrete

Fine aggregate: The fine aggregates shall be crushed or
naturally occurring mineral material passing 2.36mm sieve and
retained on 75 micron sieve.
The fine aggregates shall be free from organic, soft and friable
matter or any other deleterious matter.
The fine aggregate shall have a sand equivalent value of not less
than 50 when tested as per IS 2720 part 37.
The plasticity index of the fraction passing 425 micron sieve
shall not exceed 4 when tested as per IS:2720 par 5.

Filler
Filler shall be finely divided mineral matter such as rock dust,
hydrated lime or cement as specifically specified in the contract.
The filler shall have the grading as indicated in table 500-9
stated under DBM earlier.
The filler shall have plasticity index not greater than 4 if the
filler is rock dust. This limit of PI shall not apply to foreign fillers
such as hydrated lime or cement if used.
If the coarse aggregate is gravel, 2% by weight of total
aggregate, shall be portland cement or hydrated lime and the % of
fine aggregate reduced accordingly.

Aggregate grading & binder content

When tested in accordance with IS:2386 part I, the combined
grading of the coarse and fine aggregate and added filler shall fall
within the limits shown in table 500-18 for grading 1 or 2 as
specified in the contract.

Table: 500-18
Grading
1
2
Nominal aggregate size 19mm
13mm
Layer thickness
50-65mm
30-45mm
IS Sieve(mm)
Cumulative % passing by wt. of total aggregate

26.50
100
19.00
79-100
100
13.20
59-79
79-100
9.50
52-72
70-88
4.75
35-55
53-71
2.36
28-44
42-58
1.18
20-34
34-48
0.60
15-27
26-38
0.30
10-20
18-28
0.15
5-13
12-20
0.075
2-8
4-10
Bitumen content % by
5.0 to 6.0
5.0 to 7.0
Mass of total mix
Bitumen grade
S65
S65

Design Mix
Requirement for the mixture: Apart from the combined grading
and quality requirements for individual ingredients , the mixture
shall meet the following requirement.
TABLE: 500-19

Minimum stability at 60C: 9.0KN

Flow: 2 to 4mm
Compaction level: 75 blows on each of the two faces of specimen
Per cent air voids: 3 to 6
% void in mineral aggregate(VMA): As per table 500-12
% voids filled with bitumen(VFB): 65-75
Loss of stability on
immersion in water at 60C:Min. 75% retained strength

Binder Content
The binder content shall be optimized to achieve the
requirement of the mixture as stated under design mix.
The marshal method for determining the optimum binder
content shall be adopted as described in asphalt institute manual
MS2 by replacing the aggregate retained on 26.5mm sieve by the
aggregates passing the 26.5mm sieve and retained on 22.4mm
sieve.

Job Mix Formula(JMF)

The job mix formula submitted to the Engineer for approval
shall contain the following details.
Source & Location of materials
Proportion of all materials expressed as follows.
Binder type and % by weight of total mixture.
Coarse aggregate/Fine aggregate/Mineral filler as % by weight of
total aggregate including mineral filler.
A single definite % passing each sieve for the mixed aggregate.
The individual grading of individual aggregate fractions and the
proportion of each in the combined grading.
The marshal test results as given in table 500-19
When the mixing plant is a batch type plant, the individual weight
of each type of aggregate, and binder per batch.
The results of physical characteristics of the aggregate to be used.
Mixing temperature and compacting temperature

Plant trials & Laying trials

After the job mix formula is ready, plant trials shall be carried
out to establish capability of the plant for satisfactory production
of mix conforming to the job mix formula with permissible
variations as indicated in Table 500-13.
Following the satisfactory production of mix from the hot mix
plant, laying trials are carried out in a place not forming the part of
the project road to demonstrate satisfactory laying and compaction
of the mix in a fashion similar to DBM trial.

Construction Operations
Preparation of base: The surface on which bituminous concrete is
to be laid is thoroughly swept clean by mechanical broom and dust
removed by compressed air.
Tack Coat: If specified in the contract, a tack coat shall be
applied at rates as specified.
Level stakes at suitable intervals i.e. 10m c/c for straight
alignment and 5m c/c for curves are fixed on each side of the
carriageway to be paved and their top adjusted to desired level .A
string line is then tightly tied connecting each of the stakes with the
help of winches.
The mix produced in the plant is brought to site, laid using sensor
paver and compacted to desired density as described earlier for
dense bituminous macadam.

Opening to traffic
After 24 hours of laying, cores are taken from the surface for
ascertaining % compaction. The surface is then checked for
levels and surface regularity. The acceptable limit of tolerance
for surface level being 6mm and 3mm for surface regularity
when checked with a 3m straight edge.
The newly laid surface is then opened to traffic.

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