Soils and their Classification

Soils - What are they?

Particulate materials
- Sedimentary origins (usually)
- Residual

Wide range of particle sizes

- larger particles: quartz, feldspar
- very small particles: clay minerals

Voids between particles

Aragonite-rich soil x 2000

Need for Simple Classification

Usually soil on site has to be used.

Soils differ from other engineering materials in that one
has little control over their properties

Extent and properties of the soil have to be determined

Cheap and simple tests are required to give an indication of

engineering properties, e.g. stiffness, strength, for
preliminary design
The classification must use core samples obtained from the ground.
This information is often supplemented by in-situ tests such as cone
penetration tests.

Classification based on Particle Size

Particle size is used because it is related to mineralogy

e.g. very small particles usually contain clay minerals

Broad Classification
Coarse grained soils
sands, gravels - visible to naked eye

Classification based on Particle Size

Particle size is used because it is related to mineralogy

e.g. very small particles usually contain clay minerals

Broad Classification
Coarse grained soils
sands, gravels - visible to naked eye

Fine grained soils

silts, clays, organic soils

Procedure for grain size determination

Sieving - used for particles > 75 m

Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

Analysis based on Stokes Law, velocity proportional to diameter

Procedure for grain size determination

Sieving - used for particles > 75 m

Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

Analysis based on Stokes Law, velocity proportional to diameter

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of hydrometer test

Procedure for grain size determination

Sieving - used for particles > 75 m

Hydrometer test - used for smaller particles

Analysis based on Stokes Law, velocity proportional to diameter

Figure 1 Schematic diagram of hydrometer test

Grading curves
100

% F ine r

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

W

Well graded

10

100

Grading curves
100

% F ine r

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

W

Well graded

Uniform

10

100

Grading curves
100

% F ine r

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

W

Well graded

Uniform

Poorly graded

10

100

Grading curves
100

% F ine r

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

W

Well graded

Uniform

Poorly graded

Well graded with some clay

10

100

Grading curves
100

% F ine r

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

W

Well graded

Uniform

Poorly graded

Well graded with some clay

Well graded with an excess of fines

10

100

Simple Classification

In general soils contain a wide range of particle sizes

Some means of describing the characteristics of soils with

different proportions of sand/silt/clay is required.

Simple Classification

In general soils contain a wide range of particle sizes

Some means of describing the characteristics of soils with

different proportions of sand/silt/clay is required.
0
10

100
90

20

80

30
40

70

Clay

60

50

50

60
Sandy Clay

70
80

Clay-Sand

Silty Clay

40
30

Clay-Silt

20

90
100
0

Silty Sand

Sand
10

10

Sandy Silt

0
20

30

40
50 60
Silt Sizes (%)

70

80

90

LOWER MISSISSIPPI VALLEY DIVISION,

U. S. ENGINEER DEPT.

100

Simple Classification

In general soils contain a wide range of particle sizes

Some means of describing the characteristics of soils with different

proportions of sand/silt/clay is required.
0
10

100
90

20

80

30
40

70

Clay

60

50

50

60
Sandy Clay

70
80

Clay-Sand

Silty Clay

40
30

Clay-Silt

20

90

100

Silty Sand

Sand

10

Sandy Silt

Note the importance of clay - Finest 20% control 0behaviour

0

10

20

30

40
50 60
Silt Sizes (%)

70

80

90

LOWER MISSISSIPPI VALLEY DIVISION,

U. S. ENGINEER DEPT.

100

Example: equal amounts sand/silt/clay

Example: equal amounts sand/silt/clay

Example: equal amounts sand/silt/clay

Atterberg Limits

Particle size is not that useful for fine grained soils

Atterberg Limits
Particle size is not that useful for fine grained soils
Volume

40
30
20
10
0
0

SL
PL
LL
20 Moisture
40
60
Content (%)

Figure 4 Moisture content versus volume relation during drying

Atterberg Limits
Particle size is not that useful for fine grained soils
Volume

40
30
20
10
0
0

SL
PL
LL
20 Moisture
40
60
Content (%)

Figure 4 Moisture content versus volume relation during

drying

SL - Shrinkage Limit
PL - Plastic Limit
LL - Liquid limit

Atterberg Limits
SL - Shrinkage Limit
PL - Plastic Limit
LL - Liquid limit

Atterberg Limits
SL - Shrinkage Limit
PL - Plastic Limit
LL - Liquid limit

Plasticity Index = LL - PL = PI or Ip

Atterberg Limits
SL - Shrinkage Limit
PL - Plastic Limit
LL - Liquid limit

Plasticity Index = LL - PL = PI or Ip
Liquidity Index = (m - PL)/Ip = LI

Classification Systems

Used to determine the suitability of different soils

Used to develop correlations with useful soil properties

Special Purpose (Local) Systems

e.g. PRA system of AAHSO

1. Well graded sand or gravel: may include fines

2. Sands and Gravels with excess fines
3. Fine sands
4. Low compressibility silts
5. High compressibility silts
6. Low to medium compressibility clays
7. High compressibility clays
8. Peat and organic soils

Unified Soil Classification

Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The

following procedure is used.

Unified Soil Classification

Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The

following procedure is used.
Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 m)

Unified Soil Classification

Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The

following procedure is used.
Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 m)
Prefix S if > 50% of coarse is Sand
Prefix G if > 50% of coarse is Gravel

Unified Soil Classification

Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The

following procedure is used.
Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 m)
Prefix S if > 50% of coarse is Sand
Prefix G if > 50% of coarse is Gravel
Suffix depends on %fines

Unified Soil Classification

Each soil is given a 2 letter classification (e.g. SW). The

following procedure is used.
Coarse grained (>50% larger than 75 m)
Prefix S if > 50% of coarse is Sand
Prefix G if > 50% of coarse is Gravel
Suffix depends on %fines
if %fines < 5% suffix is either W or P
if %fines > 12% suffix is either M or C
if 5% < %fines < 12% Dual symbols are used

Unified Soil Classification

To determine if W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
Cu

D60
D10

D302
Cc
( D60 D10 )

x% of the soil has particles

smaller than Dx

Unified Soil Classification

To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
Cu

D60
D10

x% of the soil has particles

smaller than Dx

D302
Cc
( D60 D10 )
100

% F ine r

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

10

100

Unified Soil Classification

To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
Cu

D60
D10

x% of the soil has particles

smaller than Dx

D302
Cc
( D60 D10 )
100

% F ine r

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

10

100

Unified Soil Classification

To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
Cu

D60
D10

x% of the soil has particles

smaller than Dx

D302
Cc
( D60 D10 )
100

% F ine r

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

10

D90 = 3
mm

100

Unified Soil Classification

To determine W or P, calculate Cu and Cc
Cu

D60
D10

D302
Cc
( D60 D10 )

If prefix is G then suffix is W if Cu > 4 and Cc is between 1 and 3

otherwise use

If prefix is S then suffix is W if Cu > 6 and Cc is between 1 and 3

otherwise use

Unified Soil Classification

Coarse grained soils
To determine M or C use plasticity chart
60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
50

Toughness and dry strength increase

Plasticity index

with increasing plasticity index

40
CH
30
OH

20
CL
10
0

CL
ML
10
20

ML

or

OL

40
Below A-line0 use suffix M30- Silt

50
60
Liquid limit

Plasticity chart

or
MH
70

80

90

Above A-line use for

suffix
C - Clay
laboratory
classification of fine grained soils

100

Unified Soil Classification

Fine grained soils (> 50% finer than 75 m)
Both letters determined from plasticity chart
60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
50

Toughness and dry strength increase

Plasticity index

with increasing plasticity index

40
CH
30
OH

20
CL
CL

10
0

ML
10
20

ML
30

or

OL

40
50
60
Liquid limit

or
MH
70

80

90

Plasticity chart
for laboratory classification of fine grained soils

100

Unified soil classification (including identification and description)

Well graded gravels, gravelsand mixtures, little or no

fines
Poorly graded gravels, gravelsand mixtures, little or no
fines
Silty gravels, poorly
graded gravel-sand-silt mixtures

Give typical names: indicate approximate percentages of sand

and gravel: maximum size:
angularity, surface condition,
and hardness of the coarse
grains: local or geological name
and other pertinent descriptive
information and symbol in
parentheses.

Non-plastic fines (for identification

procedures see ML below)

GM

Plastic fines (for identification procedures see CL below)

GC

Clayey gravels, poorly graded

gravel-sand-clay mixtures

Wide range in grain sizes and substantial amounts of all intermediate

particle sizes

SW

Well graded sands, gravelly

sands, little or no fines

For undisturbed soils add information on stratification, degree

of compactness, cementation,
moisture conditions and drainage characteristics.

Predominantely one size or a range of

sizes with some intermediate sizes missing

SP

Poorly graded sands, gravelly

sands, little or no fines

Non-plastic fines (for identification procedures, see ML below)

SM

Silty sands, poorly graded

sand-silt mixtures

Plastic fines (for identification procedures, see CL below)

SC

Clayey sands, poorly graded

sand-clay mixtures

GP

Example:
Silty sand, gravelly; about 20%
hard angular gravel particles
12.5mm maximum size; rounded
and subangular sand grains
coarse to fine, about 15% nonplastic lines with low dry
strength; well compacted and
moist in places; alluvial sand;
(SM)

Silts and clays

liquid limit
less than 50

Identification procedure on fraction smaller than .425mm

sieve size
Dry strength
Toughness
Dilatency (consistency
crushing
(reaction
characterplastic
to shaking) nearlimit)
istics
None to
slight

Quick to
slow

None

Medium to
high

None to very
slow

Medium

Silts and clays

liquid limit
greater than
50

Slight to
medium

Highly organic soils

Slow

Slight

Slight to
medium

Slow to
none

Slight to
medium

High to very
high

None

High

Medium to
high

None to very
high

Slight to
medium

Readily identified by colour, odour

spongy feel and frequently by fibrous
texture

Inorganic silts and very fine sands,

rock flour, silty or clayey
fine sands with slight plasticity
Inorganic clays of low to medium
CL,CI plasticity, gravelly clays, sandy
clays, silty clays, lean clays
Organic silts and organic siltOL
clays of low plasticity
inorganic silts, micaceous or
MH dictomaceous fine sandy or
silty soils, elastic silts
Inorganic clays of high
CH plasticity, fat clays
ML

OH

Organic clays of medium to

high plasticity

Pt

Peat and other highly organic soils

Give typical name; indicate degree

and character of plasticity,
amount and maximum size of
coarse grains: colour in wet condition, odour if any, local or
geological name, and other pertinent descriptive information, and
symbol in parentheses
For undisturbed soils add information on structure, stratification, consistency and undisturbed and remoulded states,
moisture and drainage conditions
Example
Clayey silt, brown: slightly plastic:
small percentage of fine sand:
numerous vertical root holes: firm
and dry in places; loess; (ML)

Laboratory classification
criteria
D
C U = --- 60 Greater than 4
D 10
2
(D30 )
C c = --------------------Between 1 and 3
D10 x D60
Not meeting all gradation requirements for GW
Above "A" line with
PI between 4 and 7
are borderline cases
Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual
line with PI greater than 7 symbols
Atterberg limits below
"A" line or PI less than 4

D
C U =--- 60 Greater than 6
D 10
(D 30 )2
C c = --------------------Between 1 and 3
D 10 x D60
Not meeting all gradation requirements for SW
Above "A" line with
PI between 4 and 7
are borderline cases
Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual
line with PI greater than 7 symbols
Atterberg limits below
"A" line or PI less than 4

60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
Toughness and dry strength increase

50

with increasing plasticity index

Plasticity index

GW

Information required for

describing soils
Determine percentages of gravel and sand from grain size curve
Depending on percentages of fines (fraction smaller than .075mm
sieve size) coarse grained soils are classified as follows
Less than 5%
GW, GP, SW, SP
More than 12%
GM, GC, SM, SC
5% to 12%
Bordeline case requiring use of dual symbols

Gravels with
Clean gravels
fines
(little or no
(apreciable
fines)
amount of fines)
Clean sands
(little or no
fines)
Sands with
fines
(appreciable
amount of fines)

Gravels
More than half of coarse
fraction is larger than
2.36mm
Sands
More than half of coarse
fraction is smaller than
2.36mm

Fine grained soils

Coarse grained soils
More than half of material is smaller than
More than half of material is larger than
.075mm sieve size
.075mm sieve size
The .075mm sieve size is about the smallest particle visible to the naked eye

Wide range of grain size and substantial

amounts of all intermediate particle
sizes
Predominantly one size or a range of
sizes with some intermediate sizes
missing

Typical names

Use grain size curve in identifying the fractions as given under field identification

Group
symbols
1

Field identification procedures

(Excluding particles larger than 75mm and basing fractions on
estimated weights)

40
CI

30

CH

OH

20
CL

10
0

CL-ML
0

10

20

OL
ML
30

or
40 50 60
Liquid limit

or
MH
70

80

90

Plasticity chart
for laboratory classification of fine grained soils

100

Example
100

% Finer

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

10

100

Example
100

% Finer

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

Particle size (mm)

%fines (% finer than 75 m) = 11% - Dual symbols required

Example
100

% Finer

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

Particle size (mm)

%fines (% finer than 75 m) = 11% - Dual symbols required

D10 = 0.06 mm, D30 = 0.25 mm, D60 = 0.75 mm

Example
100

% Finer

80
60
40
20
0
0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

Particle size (mm)

Particle size fractions: Gravel

Sand

17%
73%

Silt and Clay 10%

10

100

Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S

Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6

Example
60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
50

Toughness and dry strength increase

Plasticity index

with increasing plasticity index

40
CH
30
OH

20
CL
CL

10
0

ML
10
20

ML
30

or

OL

40
50
60
Liquid limit

or
MH
70

80

90

Plasticity chart
for laboratory classification of fine grained soils

100

Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S

Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line
Suffix2 = M

Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S

Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line
Suffix2 = M
Dual Symbols are SW-SM

Of the coarse fraction about 80% is sand, hence Prefix is S

Cu = 12.5, Cc = 1.38
Suffix1 = W
From Atterberg Tests
LL = 32, PL = 26
Ip = 32 - 26 = 6
From Plasticity Chart point lies below A-line
Suffix2 = M
Dual Symbols are SW-SM
To complete the classification the Symbols should be accompanied
by a description