Teaching Writing

1. Writing to Learn and Learning to Write

2. Developing Writing Competence: Writing

Sub-skills

3. Approaches to Writing

3.1 The Text-based Approach

3.2. The Communicative Approach
3.3. Purpose and Motivation

4. Feedback on Writing

4.1. Strategies for the Correction of Mistakes

1. Writing to Learn and Learning to Write

Writing to learn
Writing is widely used in the English classes as a
means of engaging the SS with other language
skills.

The SS note down new vocabulary, copy out

grammar rules, write out answers to reading or
listening comprehension questions and do written
tests.

In these activities, writing is mainly a means of

getting the SS to practise a particular language
point or as a convenient method of testing it.

1. Writing to Learn and Learning to

Write

Learning to write
Other activities have as a main objective writing
itself. These practise written forms are either at
the level of the word or sentence or at the level of
content and organization.

The SS have to express themselves using their

own words. They have to state a purpose for
writing and often to specify a readership.

Examples of such activities: narrating a story,

writing a letter or a report.

1. Writing to Learn and Learning to

Write
Writing in Romanian and writing in
English

SS progress in language complexity much faster

in English than in Romanian.

SS understand easily that some of the structural

differences observed between speech and writing
in Romanian are similar in English and
consequently attempt the same kind of language
adjustments when they write in English.

1. Writing to Learn and Learning to

Write

There are, however, some features of written

language that may cause major problems to SS as
they may differ from those of Romanian.

These operate above the level of the sentence:

layout and physical organization on the page, text
organization determined by the social function the
text fulfills and relationships between clauses and
clause complexes.

SS may benefit from an explicit understanding of

how these work.

2. Developing Writing Competence:

Writing Sub-skills

Writing refers to several sub-skills: putting words on

paper, making sentences and linking them in
paragraphs, writing a poem, developing an essay, and
many others.
Nunan (1989) notes that writing involves:

1. mastering the mechanics of letter formation;

2. mastering and obeying conventions of spelling and
punctuation;
3. using the grammatical system to convey ones
intended meaning;
1, 2 and 3 are sentence-level skills; they receive
regular attention from teachers

2. Developing Writing Competence: Writing

Sub-skills

4. organising content at the level of the paragraph

and the complete text to reflect new/given
information and topic/comment structures;
5. polishing and revising ones initial efforts;
6. selecting an appropriate style for ones audience.

4, 5 and 6 text and discourse-level skills

and usually do not receive much
attention

2. Developing Writing Competence: Writing

Sub-skills

Writing is difficult as it involves the development and

coordination of cognitive and conceptual sub-skills,
including:
Knowledge of the language system;

Knowledge of the genre: this includes knowledge of

the content and context;

Knowledge of the writing process.

SS
also need knowledge of the effective way of
preparing for a writing task: planning, drafting,
reviewing, editing etc.

3. Approaches to Writing

two main ways of approaching writing: focusing

on the product and focusing on the writer
major approaches on the teaching of writing.

The focus on the product gave birth to the

traditional textbased approach - based on the
notion that SS need to produce accurate pieces of
writing.

The teachers using this perspective often present

model texts, usually given in textbooks, for the
SS to imitate or adapt.

3. Approaches to Writing

They believe their role is to cultivate conformity

to models and accuracy rather than fluency.

They see mistakes as something they have to

correct and eliminate.

In this approach, the SS write variations first on

sentences and paragraphs, then on very
controlled compositions, and finally, at an
advanced level, they work on free composition.

3. Approaches to Writing

The focus on the process gave birth to the more

recent process approach.

the whole purpose of creative writing is to say

something worth paying attention to.

This approach lays stress on the activities that move

the SS from the generation of ideas and collection of
data to the production and publication of the text.

It emphasises the writing process over the product,

with
recognition
of
the
process
and
the
encouragement of
exploration of topics through
writing.

3. Approaches to Writing

It is now recognised that SS not only need help

throughout the writing process, but that creative
writing in the classroom is a shared activity.

This kind of thinking has resulted in much more

attention being paid to the pre-writing stage.

Scrivener (1994) proposes at least nine stages of

preparation before the final draft of a piece of
creative writing is produced:

3. Approaches to Writing
1. Introduction of topic; group discussion; clarification of
main writing task; consideration of audience for the final
text; consideration of specific requirements style,
information, layout, etc.; consideration of likely difficulties
and problems;
2. Initial individual or group brainstorming*;
3. Selection and rejection of ideas;
4. Sorting and ordering of ideas note-making;
5. Focus on useful language models;
6. Small group or class construct of a preliminary skeleton
or example text;
7. Individual or group preparation of draft text;
8. Discussion with others and with teacher;
9. Individual or group preparation of final draft.

3.1. The Text-based Approach

also called the controlled-to-free approach, as

depending on the degree of freedom the SS are
allowed;

the writing activities used are characterized as

controlled, guided and free.

Raimes (1989) proposes five types of controlled

writing: controlled composition, question and
answer, guided composition, parallel writing and
sentence combining.

3.1. The Text-based Approach

1. Controlled composition
Controlled writing activities provide both content and
form. The SS are not asked to create anything. The T
gives them a passage and asks them to alter it.
These alterations are normally grammatical.

For example, ask them to re-write a passage about a single

child so that it becomes a passage about several children, to
re-write a direct speech text in reported speech or to re-write a
present tense passage in the past simple.

Other activities include copying, gap filling, re-ordering words,

substitution (e.g., "If he stayed/left/spoke they would disagree
with him"), correct the facts (e.g., re-write the sentences so that
they match a picture) and dictation.

3.1. The Text-based Approach

These activities can be made more meaningful and

interesting, remaining still very controlled, if the SS are given
a chance to think what they are writing.
For instance, copying is completely mechanical when they are
asked to copy a string of words: a sentence that they do not
understand. In this case, their attention is focused only on
spelling. However, copying may become more meaningful if
the SS can contribute something to the text. Part(s) of the
sentence can be left out for the SS to write themselves. The
teacher may write the sentence outline on the board, (e.g.,
they home afternoon), say the whole sentence and ask the
SS to write what they heard.
You can also show or draw a picture to replace part(s) of the
sentence. Alternatively, Ts may write the sentence on the
board and ask SSvto write a similar true sentence about
themselves.

3.1. The Text-based Approach

Gap-filling, can become more involving and

challenging if the SS are given the opportunity to
choose between alternatives given in brackets.

Dictation is also a mechanical activity, restricted

to practising spelling.

An alternative to traditional dictation is the

dictocomp (a combination of dictation and
composition), which develops both listening and
writing skills and focuses on meaning.

3.1. The Text-based Approach

2. Questions and answers

A question and answer procedure continues the

Ts control over what is produced but allows the
SS a little more freedom. The text emerges from
the answers produced by the SS to questions
asked by the T. The questions may be based on a
set of notes or a picture. A picture sequence can
be used to make the task a little more interesting.

As confidence and skill grow, you can ask the SS

to create a story directly from a sequence of
pictures, without the question - answer stage.

3.1. The Text-based Approach

3. Guided writing

In guided writing, the Ts retain a certain amount

of control over the form and content of the SS
writing. The SS are given information that they
must include in their writing.

Sometimes the Ts also give the first and last

sentences. The information may come in the form
of a picture.

3.1. The Text-based Approach

4. Parallel writing

Such activities are typically used with preintermediate and intermediate SS.

In this type of writing activities, content is free

but form is given. Ts first give the SS a piece of
writing to see and then they use it as a basis for
their own work. The original piece, sets a model
and guides them in expressing themselves.

It generally addresses the paragraph level.

3.1. The Text-based Approach

5. Sentence combining

Sentence combining tasks are rather more

mechanical than parallel writing tasks. They
provide the SS with the materials and ask them
to manipulate them.

Ts give sets of simple sentences and ask the SS to

combine them in grammatically acceptable ways
to produce complex sentences. This helps them
to develop their style.

3.1. The Text-based Approach

Free writing

It means giving the SS free choices in

expressing their own views and thoughts.
However, free writing tasks can be assigned
only after the study of the respective genre
models.

3.1. The Text-based Approach

Activities:

write narratives based on a picture or series of pictures.

describe an occasion when they felt disappointed or afraid,
surprised or relieved.
describe someone they know very well or write descriptions
of people and places, based on photographs or some
information about them.
write an answer to a (given) letter of complaint, write
application letters, etc.
describe the process represented in a flowchart or any kind
of diagram,.
write reports of books they read, reviews of books or
instruction sheets for something they know how to do well
(e.g., prepare some kind of food) or essays on various topics.

3.1. The Text-based Approach

Essay

format.

Whatever kind of writing

activities SS practise in the classroom, at some
stage, you will probably require them to produce
an essay, and this will have to conform to an
acceptable format.

A sample format is given below:

Introduction
Body
Conclusion

3.2. The Communicative Approach

emphasises task-oriented activities that

involve the exchange of information, with
focus on fluency.

Although the approach practises a good

deal of modelling and controlled practice, a
lot of attention is paid to motivation and to
self-expression.

3.2. The Communicative Approach

Ideas of written communicative activities:

Relaying instructions
One S or one group of SS elaborate
instructions for the performance of a task.
They have to tell another S or group to
perform the task by giving them written
instructions.

3.2. The Communicative Approach

Writing reports, advertisements,

brochures

The SS write items for a school news broadcast or a

school magazine. They can join together to write a
brochure about the place they live in or are studying
in. They can write and design their own
advertisements.

Co-operative writing

The SS may write joint stories, each S contributing a

sentence. They may start either at the first or the last
sentence (these may be or may not be supplied).

3.2. The Communicative Approach

The agony column

The SS invent some problem, write letters to the

columnist and then have them answered by
other members of the class.

Letters of complaint

The SS write letters of complaint about faulty

goods they have purchased or bad service they
received. The company representatives reply to
these letters.

3.2. The Communicative Approach

Job applications

The applications can be later on judged and a decision

taken about who is successful.

Journals

These diaries are not primarily to be corrected, but rather

to be reacted to.

Projects

longer pieces of work that involve the collection of

information and reporting
SS may record interviews with native speakers they can
find, or they can consult libraries (including electronic
ones) for source material.

3.3. Purpose and Motivation

The CA has led us to pay more attention to the

purpose of language and to the content of the
message the SS intend to get across.

It is sometimes difficult for both Ts and SS to think

of writing as a motivating, purposeful activity,
especially if the goal of the activity is
grammatical accuracy.

two questions:
to whom they are writing,
for what purpose.

3.3. Purpose and Motivation

When the SS have a better idea of whom their

readers are and of how they can get prepared to
negotiate meaning, their writing is more
purposeful.

The incorporation of an
communication,
such
as
motivating for most SS.

Encouraging SS to help each other in preparing

their written tasks may also provide motivation
and increase their confidence.

element of real
publication,
is

4. Feedback on Writing

Many teachers feel a terrible temptation to take

the SS work, indicate all the places that need
fixing and return it to the SS.

Undoubtedly, the papers would be better if the SS

handed them in the second time.

The question is whether the SS care enough

about their papers to want to put them into
acceptable form and whether teachers know how
to encourage them to do that.

4. Feedback on Writing

C. Tribble (1996) identifies four basic roles that Ts

may assume when giving feedback:

1. audience (we read the text and say how we find it and
if the authors point is clearly formulated).

2. evaluators (give feedback on the present strengths

and weaknesses of a text).

3. examiner (give a grade).

4. assistant (tell the SS if you find their text effective in

relation to its purpose, pass advice on language, genre,
structure and subject matter).

4. Feedback on Writing

feedback
is
usually
limited
to
grading,
commenting (superficially) and correcting errors.

strategies to give constructive comments on

drafts.

if feedback is done effectively, by the time the

text is finished, most of the problems have been
solved.

writing involves content, organisation,

syntax, mechanics, grammar and spelling.

style,

4. Feedback on Writing

Feedback on content, unlike feedback on

grammar, can determine the improvement of
writing.

If feedback is limited to pointing out and/or

correcting errors, SS will concentrate on
producing error-free writing, neglecting the
interest or even the meaning of the content.

The equation teaching writing = error elimination

is counter-productive and may result in a waste of
time and discouragement.

4. Feedback on Writing

Feedback in the form of comments by the

teacher, is extremely helpful.

The most important contribution Ts can

make is that of being a careful reader,
willing to respond to what SS write in terms
of clarity, coherence and effectiveness of
content.

4.1. Strategies for the Correction of Mistakes

Correction can be seen as an opportunity to make

positive responses to a students work.

This is extremely difficult to do if Ts concern is to

mark every error in red pen.

ultimately a grade will have to be given to the piece

of writing, but if it is based entirely on grammatical
accuracy, then the whole point of the writing will
have been lost.

This is not to say that mistakes in syntax or

punctuation should be ignored.

4.1. Strategies for the Correction of

Mistakes

read a piece of writing twice:

once for the content and the second time for the
language.

During the first reading, try to ignore grammatical

errors and concentrate entirely on the content.

Assign a mental grade to the content, then reread

to assess syntax, punctuation, spelling and the
way in which the text hangs together.

The final grade should reflect content, shape and

grammatical accuracy.

4.1. Strategies for the Correction of

Mistakes
The problem of correction of mistakes is one
of potential conflict between two of the
roles of the teachers: language instructors
versus assistants.

If we accept that language should be

corrected, then the problem arises: should
all language mistakes be noted?

The approach should vary according to

context and the Ss individual needs.

4.1. Strategies for the Correction of

Mistakes

One approach is to ignore the language mistakes

that do not hinder reading.
Ts may correct only those mistakes that are very
basic and those which affect meaning, leading to
misunderstanding or confusion, such as sentence
derailments or faulty subordination.
Another strategy is to point out both strengths and
weaknesses.
Thus, SS will have the chance to perceive a correct
model in their own use of language and will be likely
to continue taking risks if they see that their good
qualities are noted and encouraged.

4.1. Strategies for the Correction of

Mistakes
Use of correction symbols (less timeconsuming)
"V" for vocabulary

"WO" for word order

"WW" for wrong word
"/" for missing word
"SP for spelling
"P" for punctuation
"GR" for grammar
"VF" for verb form
"VT" for verb tense
? for unclear meaning or handwriting.

4.1. Strategies for the Correction of

Mistakes

Rewriting

whether you should insist on the SS

rewriting their tasks, incorporating your
suggestions.

Your SS do not like doing it, but, on the

other hand, frequent opportunities for
writing and rewriting are an important tool
for improving language, content and
structure.

4.1. Strategies for the Correction of

Mistakes
Peer correction

Even if SS cannot discern all the strengths and

weaknesses of an assignment, they will detect at
least some of them.

The problem is whether your SS feel comfortable

correcting or being corrected by their classmates
and whether they accept criticism (positive or
negative) form each other.

Their comfort will

classroom climate.

depend

on

the

general

4.1. Strategies for the Correction of

Mistakes
Self-correction (critical reading)
V. Zamel (1991) suggests four self-correction
techniques that the SS can use to correct their
own work in class with a critical eye.

1. The pupils read their papers aloud to other SS.

Reading aloud will help them spot some of the
mistakes.

2. A classmate reads the paper aloud. The new

reader may pause when coming across a mistake or
when a sentence is problematic .

4.1. Strategies for the Correction of Mistakes

3. The SS take their text, cover up everything on

the page except the first sentence, put their
pencil point to one word at a time and say the
sentence aloud, word by word. They try to pick
out the core (subject + verb) of the sentence.

4. The SS read the whole text backwards,

sentence by sentence, starting with the last one.
This is a way of focusing attention on sentencelevel accuracy and preventing the eye from
leaping ahead for the content.

4.1. Strategies for the Correction of

Mistakes

There is certainly no perfect approach to giving

feedback on writing.

Yet it is essential that your SS understand how Ts

want the feedback system to work.

The question of class climate, personal

relationships, trust and willingness to accept
criticism and help from one another remains.

constructive feedback