Informal Fallacies

Fallacy
An Error in Reasoning
To find out a fallacy is to identify the ways
(recognizable patterns) in which one is tempted
to reason incorrectly.
Incorrect Reasoning: Premises of an argument fail
to support its Conclusion.
E.g., all sciences are materialistic, Karl Marx was a
materialist, therefore Karl Marx was scientific.

Formal Fallacies & Informal

Fallacies
Type of Incorrect Argument
Formal Fallacy: Defect recognized in the
form/structure of a deductive argument
Informal Fallacy: Defect due to the
content of the language used
the pitfalls laid by language in the way of
a thinker

Classification of Fallacies
Identifiable Common Features
No indubitable Taxonomy of Fallacies

Therefore, working classification (somewhat

arbitrary)
1.
2.
3.
4.

Fallacies
Fallacies
Fallacies
Fallacies

of
of
of
of

Relevance
Defective Induction
Presumption
Ambiguity

Fallacies of
Relevance/Irrelevance
1. The Appeal to the Populace (Argument
ad Populum)
2. The Appeal to Emotion
3. The Red Herring
4. The Straw Man
5. The Attack on the Person
(Abusive/Circumstantial)

6. The Appeal to Force

7. Missing the Point

The Appeal to the Populace

(Argument ad Populum)
Attempt to win popular assent to a
conclusion by arousing the feeling of the
peoplemobilizing public sentimentto
excite enthusiasm/stir emotions (Appeal to
emotion)
Instead of providing convincing evidence
and rational justification if one resorts to
unduly invoking emotions, one commits a
fallacy of this kind.

Patriotism & Advertisement

Many emotions are invoked and demands are
pressed in the name of Nation and most of them in
some sense seem justified. However, if the
emotions are incited to garner support on illogical
grounds, then the appeal becomes fallacious. For
example, if a party demands vote in the name of
religion, caste and region etc., it is not logically
justified because the voters are supposed to vote
on the merits of the candidate and the accidental
facts like belonging to a religion or caste etc. do
not constitute any merits which show the integrity
and honesty of a candidate.

P&A cont

ad Populum cont
My party candidate is an accused person
only, others have given tickets to criminals.
There is a fallacy of bandwagon in the given example,
because instead of providing any rational justification for
why the party ticket is given to an accused person, the
spoke person is pointing out that others are also doing the
same. His reason is logically irrelevant to support his
claim that giving ticket to a tainted person is necessary.
Though it is psychologically appealing that a vicious
person can very well overcome another vicious, but it is
not necessary. A virtuous person can be a more potential
candidate against the vicious ones.

Argument ad Misericordiam
(appeal to pity)
Latin misericordiam means merciful
heart. Mercy is a noble emotion and
there is nothing wrong to appeal to
this virtue. But if an undue appeal is
made, then it becomes a fallacy.
For example, a law officer commits this
fallacy if he pleads for the leniency to
his client, who killed his parents, on
the grounds that he is an orphan.

The Red Herring

Some distraction is deliberately
introduced to mislead or confuse to
win the argument
Children are abused in New Delhi
because there is a paucity of
affordable child-care facilities.
Here the scarcity of child-care facility (creche) is
brought in to take away the attention from the
deteriorating law and order situation in the
national capital.

The Straw Man Fallacy

Presenting an opponents position in a way easy
to refute (may be a variety of red herring)
Assumption: opponents position is understood
in its extremity
(a) Remarks by Mr. Mohan Bhagwat on
reservation
(b) Taking any remark too literally (donkey/dog)

Argument Against the person (ad

hominem)
Argument Against the Person (abusive)
Mr. Lalu Yadavs concern for corruption is not
acceptable since he himself is convicted on
corruption charges.
Argument Against the Person
(circumstantial)
Non-NET qualified students demand is not
legitimate because those protesting belong
to this category itself

Appeal to Force (Argument ad

Baculum)
Force or threat of force is pressed into
service instead of any rational
justification
E.g. if you do not agree with my view,
you have to face the consequences
fundamentalists

Missing the Point (Ignoratio

Elenchi)
Such mistake is likely to be made when one
seeks to refute anothers argument. Ignoratio
elenchi is a mistaken refutationthe
refutation goes haywire when the arguer fails
to understand the position in dispute.
E.g. Opposition says that the economic situation
is worsening because the prices of everything
are rising. Govt. says that economy is
improving and we are conducting raids on the
hoarders to keep the prices low non sequitur

Fallacies of Defective
Induction
The Argument from Ignorance (ad
ignorantiam): x is true because it is not
proven to be falseapprehension towards
any new thing is likely to involve this fallacy.
Appeal to Inappropriate Authority
(argument ad verecundiam): a conclusion is
accepted to be true when an expert
endorses. Obvious fallacy is seen where a
non-experts advice is used to accept a
conclusion.

FDI cont
False Cause (argument non causa pro
causa)
when a non-cause is accepted as the cause
of something, such fallacy is committed
(WMD issue for UK)
post hoc ergo propter hoc: after this,
therefore because of this
Fallacy of the slippery slope: change in one
will lead to necessary change in the other
likely (Collegium System Vs. NJAC)

FDI cont
Hasty Generalization:
moving carelessly from short sample size to a
general claim (converse accident)
Varun, Vipin, Vikas, Vaibhav, Vishakha are the
students of SMVDU.
Their name begins with a letter which is in the
centre of SMVDU.
Therefore, SMVDU admits only those whose
name begin with V.

Fallacies of Presumption
Fallacy due to tacit assumption which is
unwarranted, dubious or false
Fallacy of Accident:
Mistaken application of the general to
special cases
Complex Question:
Deceitful device: have you stopped
beating your wife?

FP cont
Begging the Question: (petitio principi)
When the conclusion of an argument is
assumed in any one of the premises
E.g. there is no such thing as knowledge
which cannot be practiced, for such
knowledge is no knowledge.
Religious texts contain the message of
God, they say that God exists, therefore
we must accept that God exists.

Fallacies of Ambiguity
Fallacy of Equivocation (due to more than one
literal meaning) MMS
Fallacy of Amphiboly (fallacious due to
grammatical construction) X, along with his
wife, Y, donated his house for charity
Fallacy of Accent (shift in the emphasis) We
should not speak ill of our friends
Fallacy of Composition (features of parts to the whole)
Fallacy of Division (reverse of the fallacy of
composition)
terms and conditions apply

Mills Method
Cause and Effect Relationship
The Method of Agreement
The Method of
Disagreement/Difference
The Joint Method of Agreement and
Difference
The Method of Residues
The Method of Concomitant Variation