Application of Statistics in Research

Dr.P.Muthupandi,
Asst. Professor,
Department of Education,
DDE
Madurai Kamaraj
University,
Madurai 625 021

Research & Educational Research

Research is an intellectual activity in which systematic analysis is done.

It is a systematized effort to acquire new knowledge.
Research is simply one of many means by which human beings seeks
answers to questions (may be personal or professional)

Example: a coworker who ask you for lunch. For this question u have to answer
the questions like 1. lunch already completed? 2. Money? 3. Time?
Example: Motivating a unmotivated student by applying various ideas till he
motivated

Research is undoubtedly an essential and powerful tool in leading man

towards progress.
According to John W. Best (1977) Research is considered to be the more
formal, systematic intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of
analysis.
Educational Research is nothing but applying the scientific principles in the
field of education in order to find the answers to the questions.

Types of Research (in general)

Quantitative Research
where the data concerned can be analyzed in terms
of numbers.

Qualitative Research
Which describes events, persons and so forth
scientifically without utilizing numerical data.

Research Methods (Major)

Historical Research
Survey
Experimental
Case study

Population and Sample

Population :
It is the entire group we are interested in, which we
wish to describe or draw conclusions about
Sample :
A sample is a group of units selected from a larger
group (the population). By studying the sample it is
hoped to draw valid conclusions about the larger
group.
A sample is generally selected for study because the
population is too large to study in its entirety. The
sample should be representative of the general
population.
This is often best achieved by random sampling.Survey

Student1
Student2
Student3
Student4
Student5
TOTAL

Class 1
100
100
100
100
100

Class 2
99
100
102
101
98

Class 3
1
2
3
4
490

500

500

500

Student1
Student2
Student3
Student4
Student5
TOTAL

Average

Class 1
100
100
100
100
100

Class 2
99
100
102
101
98

Class 3
1
2
3
4
490

500

500

500

100

100

100

Significance of Standard Deviation

So to determine the usefulness of an average , we
have to calculate standard deviation.
If the value of standard deviation is less then the
usefulness of an average is more.
If the value of standard deviation is more then the
usefulness of an average is less.

Class 1
100
100
100
100
100

Class 2
99
100
102
101
98

Class 3
1
2
3
4
490

TOTAL

500

500

500

Average

100

100

100

1.58

218.02

Student1
Student2
Student3
Student4
Student5

Standard Deviation

TYPES OF DATA
1. NOMINAL DATA
2. ORDINAL DATA
3. INTERVAL DATA
4. RATIO DATA

1. NOMINAL DATA (SCALE)

A set of data is said to be nominal if the observations belonging to it can

be assigned a code in the form of a number where the numbers are
simply labels. You can count but not order or measure nominal data.
Example

Gender
Female=1, Male =2
Marital status
Married=1; Unmarried=2

2. ORDINAL DATA (SCALE)

A set of data is said to be ordinal if the values / observations belonging

to it can be ranked (put in order) or have a rating scale attached. You can
count and order, but not measure, ordinal data.
Example

Ranking information on the basis of importance.

First rank for highest Importance
Last Rank for least Importance

3. INTERVAL DATA (SCALE)

An interval scale is a scale of measurement where the distance between

any two adjacent units of measurement (or 'intervals') is the same but
the zero point is arbitrary. Scores on an interval scale can be added and
subtracted but cannot be meaningfully multiplied or divided
.
Example

Year: 1990,1991,1992,1993,1994
Strongly agree=5,agree=4,No opinion=3,disagree=2,strongly
disagree=1

4. Ratio data (scale)

A set of data is said to be Ratio if the values / observations belonging to
it may take on any value within a finite or infinite interval. You can
count, order and measure continuous data.
Example

For example height, weight, temperature, the amount

of sugar in an orange, the time required to run a mile

Stages of Data Analysis

EDITING

CODING

DATA ENTRY

DATA ANALYSIS

ERROR
CHECKING
AND
VERIFICATION

Editing
The process of checking and
adjusting the data
for omissions
for legibility
for consistency
And readying them for coding and
storage

Coding
The process of identifying and
assigning a numerical score or other
character symbol to previously edited
data

Data Entry
The process of transforming data from the
research project to computers.
Optical scanning systems
Marked-sensed questionnaires

Dr.N.Ramkumar, Faculty, PSGIM

Data Analysis

Construction of Master Table

Assign Numbers for each level to the
background variable
Define Variable in the variable view
Define the categories of the background
variable
Enter the data on the table
Example

Sample Distribution
1. Normal Distribution

2. Negatively Skewed
3. Positively Skewed

4. Leptokutrtic
5. Mesokurtic
6. Platykurtic

Normal Distribution Norms

Skeweness Kurtoasis -

-2 to +2
-2 to +2

http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/

Difference Between Parametric & Non parametric Tests

Parametric Statistics

Non-Parametric Statistics

Scale

Interval (or) Ratio

Any Scale of Measurement

Distribution

Normal Distribution

Any Distribution

Power

More Power

Less Power

Example

t Test,
ANOVA,
ANCOVA,
PM Correlation,
Regression,
Trend Analysis

Chi-Square
Sign Test
Mean
Median
Mode
Rank Difference

WHEN SHOULD SELECT A

NONPARAMETRIC TEST
1. The outcome is a rank or a score and the population is
clearly not Normal.
2. Some values are "off the scale," that is, too high or too
low to measure
3. The data are measurements, and you are sure that the
population is not distributed in a Normal manner

Reliability of the tool

In statistics, reliability is the consistency of a set of
measurements or of a measuring instrument.
Methods used for reliability
Test-Retest method (Correlation between Test & Retest)
Split half method (Correlation between odd and even numbers scores)
Internal consistency (Kuder Richardson Formula)

(KR-21 formula)

(K)(SD)2 M(K-M)
r=
(SD)2 (K-1)

r = Reliability index

Example

K = Number of Item on the test

40 items,
mean of 27.3
SD is 4.64

M = Mean
SD = Standard Deviation

0.64

Cronbachs Alpha

Item Analysis
For refinement of the tool item validity was calculated.
This is also known as internal validity of an instrument.
It refers to the interconnectedness of different items in
the same tool.
According to Borg and Gall (1979), item reliability and
item validity play a vital role in selecting items to form
the final tool.

How can we find out item analysis

Statistical assistance from internet
Experimental Design

Discriminating Power & Difficulty Index

Discriminating power =Ph-Pl
U
Difficulty level = (Ph + Pl )
U
Ph= the proportion of pupils in the high
achieving group who answered the items
correctly.
Pl =the proportion of pupils in the low
achieving group who answered the items
correctly.
U=Total number of pupils in both groups

Criteria for Selection

Discriminating Power

Difficulty Level

.4 & above

Excellent item

Between .4 & .6

Average difficulty

Between .4 &.3

Good

Between .2 & .4

Difficult item

Between .2 &.3

Average item

Between .6 & .8

Easy item

Between .2 & .1

Requires
improvement

Between .8 & 1

Very easy item

Less than .1

Item to be dropped

Between 0 & .2

Very difficult item

Distribution of Items based on Difficulty

50%
25%
20%
05%

of the items are of average difficulty,

are easy ,
difficult and
are very difficult.

Finding Levels for the score

Description

Level

Less than Mean-1sd

Low

b/w (Mean-1sd) and

(Mean+1sd)

Average

More than Mean+1sd

High

Low

Average

High

Finding Levels for the score

Low

Average

High

Finding t Test and ANOVA

ANOVA

Correlation by Using Ms.Excel

Enter the data
Select the Cell where u want r value

Type the Formula =correl(Array1,Array2)

22

31

44

40

48

52

50

34

52

55

64

52

60

35

42

26

45

43

54

50

Online Chi-Square Calculator

Find the level from Ms.Excel
Number of Low Level Sample
Number of Average Level Sample
Number of High Level Sample
Put the Count of the data on
http://www.physics.csbsju.edu/stats/contingency_NRO
W_NCOLUMN_form.html

For Further Contact

E-mail ID :
haimuthupandi@yahoo.com
Web page:
www.muthupandi.co.in