FUNDAMENTAL

CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE

BIOSYSTEMS

The principal organelles of a cell

1. (SELF)REPRODUCTION
2. METABOLISM
3. DISSIPATIVITY
4. SELF PROTECTION
5. Self Renewal/Turnover
6. Growth/Development
7. Self Regulation
8. Optimal Integrality

(SELF)REPRODUCTION:
1. ASEXUATE
1.1 Division
1.2 Clonning

2. SEXUATE

The prokariotic and eukaryotic cells

have some unusual features that are
best explained as the results of
endosymbionts evolving into a part of
the host cell.
(Endosymbiosis means living inside
another organism)
The first evidence of eukaryotes
appears in the fossil record about
2 billion (2 x 109) years ago!!!

Reproduction in prokaryotes occurs

primarily by cell mitosis - each cell
divides into two daughter cells.

4N

Cell mitosis

2N

2N

2N

2N

Cell division

Before cells divide they have to double cell

structures, organelles and their genetic
information

Cell Mitosis

Mitosis Template
Centromere

Chromatids

Centriole pair
Microtubules

Centrosome

Mitosis Template

Chromosomes
(various stages)

Mitosis Template

Plasma Membrane
(various stages)

Interphase

Interphase

Interphase

Interphase

Interphase

Interphase

Interphase

Interphase

Prophase

Prophase

Prophase

Prophase

Prophase

Prophase

Prophase

Prophase

Prophase

Prophase

Prophase

Prophase

Metaphase

Metaphase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Anaphase

Anaphase

Anaphase

Anaphase

Anaphase

Anaphase

Anaphase

Anaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

Telophase

Telophase

Telophase

Telophase

Telophase

Telophase

Telophase

Telophase

Telophase

Telophase

Precambrian
animal
embryos
Thiomargarita
namibiensis

giantbacteria
(left)and
precambrian
animal
embryos
(right)
Sea
urchin
embryo

Evolution of the chromosome number during a cell cycle

Ga
p

1P

ha
se

2N

n
Sy

sis
e
th

4N
2N + 2N
e
has
p
s
osi
t
i
M

4N
Ga
p

2P
ha
se

ase
h
p

Chromosomes

Human karyotype: 46 chromosomes

Prokariotes and eukaryotes have, at some

moments in their life cycle, two sets of the
genes needed for their life.
A complete set of necessary genes is
called a genome
Meiosis and
Syngamy have
opposite effects on
the number of
genomes

Haploid - one genome - 1N

Diploid - two genomes - 2N

Gametes
Somatic cell

2N

Zygote

1N

Mitosis

Syngamy

Meiosis
1N

2N

METABOLISM :
ANABOLISM + CATABOLISM

Metabolism (the chemical reactions of life).

Prokaryotes are structurally simple, but far more
diverse metabolically than eukaryotes.
One way to divide types of prokaryotic metabolisms
is into autotrophic and heterotrophic
Another way to divide is into phototrophic (energy
derived from light) and chemotrophic (energy
derived from inorganic molecules)
Photosynthetic bacteria

Adenosine TriPhosphate (ATP):

the energetic currency of the cell

Gex1 < 0

Gex2 < 0

The ATP cycle

ATP

Gex + Gen < 0

Gex < 0

Gen > 0

ADP + P

G = H - T S

G1

 Gradientul

de protoni este realizat prin

oxidarea NADH ceea ce introduce electroni n
lanul respirator

68

69

Sinteza ATP-ului de catre ATP-sintetaza

care utilizeaza gradientul de protoni

70

C10-15

Periplasmic

F0
Cytoplasmic

b22

F1

LIVING ORGANISMS:
DISSIPATIVE STRUCTURES

Status of the Second Law

[Thermodynamics] is the only theory
of a general nature of which I am
convinced that it will never be
overthrown (Albert Einstein).
[Thermodynamics]holds the supreme
position among the laws of Nature If your
theory is found to be against the Second
Law of Thermodynamics, I can give you no
hope (Sir Arthur Eddington).

The Second Principle of

Thermodynamics
Any spontaneous process in an isolated
system reduces its potential (G < 0) and
increases its entropy (disorder): S > 0
The system evolves closer to an equilibrium
state of zero potential in which nothing
further can happen: G = 0 !
The same basic forces of entropy apply
also to open systems including ecosystems

Far-from-Equilibrium Thermodynamics
Living self-reproducing systems develop
and grow by consuming, degrading and
disipating gradients of available energy
and matter
Living systems maintain themselves in a
far-from-equilibrium state by extracting
resources from their host ecosystems and
by dumping their wastes (entropy) back
into their hosts.
SBIOS < 0!!
GBIOS < 0
The biosystems are dissipative structures.

Comparing Natural and Human Ecosystems:

Degrading the Planet !!
Human-less ecosystems:
Develop by degrading and
dissipating solar energy
(increases entropy of the
universe)
Anabolism exceeds
catabolism
Production dominates
Characterized by
accumulation of
ecosystems

Human-dominated
ecosystems:
Grow by degrading and
dissipating resource gradients
of the ecosystems (increases
entropy of ecosphere)
Catabolism exceeds
anabolism !!
Consumption dominates
Characterized by depletion
of host ecosystems

(SELF)PROTECTION
1. Molecular level
1.1 SOS battery
1.2 Chaperone system
1.3 Immune system

2. Cellular level
3. Tissue level
4. Organismic level
4.1 Nervous system
4.2 Endocrine system

5. Populational level

Induction of Protective and Apoptotic Programs

by Abnormal or Unfolded Proteins

Abnormal or Unfolded
Protein

MY Sherman and AL Goldberg, Cellular Defenses against Unfolded Proteins: A Cell Biologist
Thinks about Neurodegenerative Diseases, Neuron, Vol. 29, 1532, January, 2001,

S T O P !