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Electromagnetics

Why Study
Electromagnetics?

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Examples of Electromagnetic
Applications

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Examples of Electromagnetic
Applications, Contd

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Examples of Electromagnetic
Applications, Contd

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Examples of Electromagnetic
Applications, Contd

Examples of
Electromagnetic
Applications,
Contd

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Scalar and Vector

Fields

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A scalar field is a function that gives us

a single value of some variable for
every point in space.
Examples: voltage, current, energy,
temperature

A vector is a quantity which has both a

magnitude and a direction in space.
Examples: velocity, momentum, acceleration
and force
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Example of a Scalar
Field

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Scalar Fields

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e.g. Temperature: Every location has

associated value (number with units)

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Vector Fields

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Vector (magnitude, direction) at every point

in space

Example: Velocity vector field - jet stream

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Vector Fields Explained

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Examples of Vector
Fields

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Gradient of a Scalar
Field

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dr

r dr

f
f
f
df f (r dr ) f (r ) dx
dy
dz
x
y
z

f f f

i
j
k dx i dy j dz k
y
z
x

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f dr

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Where, we have the shorthand

notation :
f f f
i
j
k f
x
y
z

Since f is a vector assigned to each

point
it defines a vector field. This vector
field is called the gradient of thef
scalar field
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We have

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df f dr f n ds

df

ds

(dr ds n )

f n
n

That is, the rate of change of a scalar

field in any direction at a point, is the
component of the gradient of the field
in the given direction, at that point.
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ASET

df

ds

f n
n

df
ds

f
max

And the maximum valueoccurs n

when
is in the same direction
as
f
Thus, gradient of a scalar field at any
point may be defined as a vector,
whose direction is the direction in
which the scalar increases most
rapidly, and whose magnitude is the
maximum rate of change

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The Del Operator

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The gradient of a scalar field can be

thought of as the result of the vector
differential operator :

i
j
k
x
y
z
acting on the scalar field :

f i
j
k f
y
z
x

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Important Properties of
the Gradient

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1. The line integral of the gradient of a

scalar field from one point to another, is
independent of the path of integration
(it depends only on the two points)
P2
C2

C1

P1

f dl f dl f ( P2 ) f ( P1 )

C1

C2

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2. Line integral of the gradient

around a closed path is zero

f dl 0
3. If the line integral of a vector field
from one point to another is
independent of the path joining
them, then that vector field must be
the gradient of a scalar field.
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4. The gradient of a scalar field, at

each point in space, is perpendicular
to the level surface (constant surface)
of the scalar field, passing through
that point

P
f ( x, y, z ) Const.
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Orthogonal Coordinate Systems: (coordinates mutually perpendicular)

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Cartesian Coordinates
Rectangular Coordinates
P (x,y,z)

P(x,y,z)

y
x
z

z
P(r, , z)

Cylindrical Coordinates
P (r, , z)

z
Spherical Coordinates

P (r, , )
x

P(r, , )

y
Page 108
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CO-ORDINATE SYSTEMS

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There are three co-ordinate systems generally used in the

analysis of the electromagnetic problems
Cartesian Co-ordinate System
The 3-D space imagined like a box

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Vector Products
The scalar (dot) and vector (cross) products of the two vectors
defined as

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and

are

where
are the three axes of a co-ordinate system, and ,
and
are
the corresponding unit vectors. The dot product of two vectors is a scalar quantity as
where the cross-product of two vectors is a vector quantity. From the above two
equations we can note that

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Differential Operator
A very important differential operator which is used in the analysis of the
electromagnetic problems is the operator
, pronounced as `del'. This operator is a
vector operator and it has the dimension of length-inverse
. In cartesian coordinate system the operator can be written as

In all algebric manipulations, the

can be treated as a vector. The operator
can
operate on a scalar like the multiplication of a scalar and a vector, or it can operate on
a vector like the dot or cross products of the two vectors.

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Right handed convention has been followed.

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Cylindrical Co-ordinate System

The 3-D space imagined like a cylinder

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Spherical Co-ordinate System

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The 3-D space imagined like a sphere
A vector A can be decomposed into the three components along
the three axis in any co-ordinate system.

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METRIC
COEFFICIENTS

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Representation of differential length dl in coordinate systems:

rectangular

dl dx ax dy ay dz az

cylindrical

dl dr ar r d a dz az

spherical

dl dr ar rd a r sin d a

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Cartesian Coordinates

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Differential quantities:
Length:

dl xdx y dy zdz

Area:

ds x xdydz

ds y y dxdz

ds z zdxdy

Volume:

dv dxdydz

Page 109
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Cylindrical Coordinates
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Differential quantities:
Length:

rd zdz
dl rdr

Area:

dsr rrddz

drdz
ds

ds z zrdrd

Volume:

dv rdrd dz
Pages 109-112

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Spherical Coordinates
Differential quantities:
Length:

dl
dl
dl R dl R

Rd
R sin d
R dR

dl R dR

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dl Rd
dl R sin d

Area:

dsR R dl dl R R 2 sin dd

dl dl
R sin dRd
ds
R

dl R dl
RdRd
ds
Volume:

dv R 2 sin dRdd

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Divergence and
Curl of a Vector
Given the three components of a
Field
F ,F & F

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vectorx field,
, one can
y
z
construct nine first derivatives :

Fx Fx
Fz
,
, ...........,
x y
z

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Divergence :

Fx
Fy
Fz
F

x
y
z
Curl :
Fz Fy
Fx Fz Fy Fx

i
k
F

j
z
x
y
z
y
x
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F i j k Fx i Fy j Fz k
y
z
x

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F i j k Fx i Fy j Fz k
y
z
x
i

x
Fx

y
Fy

z
Fz

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Electric flux and

Gausss Law

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So far, have the following surface

integral relations
Gauss Law
S

E ds =

dv = 1 Q
o
V

Gauss Law for Magnetism

B ds = 0
S

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Two Important Theorems

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i) Gauss Divergence
Theorem :

da

F da F d
S

Here,
is any vector field and
S
any closed surface

,
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A Simple Application
of Divergence
General
Proof of Archimedes
Theorem
Principle

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Fb dF P da
S

dF

P( z ) g (h z )

da

z
x

y
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ii) Stokes Curl Theorem

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d
l

F
)

d
a

Here, C is any closed loop (planar or

otherwise), and S is any surface
bounded by the loop.

da

dl

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Generalized
Amperes Law

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Amperes law shown earlier, is not quite complete!

doesnt account for displacement current
an imaginary current (not associated with the motion of
charges) but which can generate magnetic field
think of a capacitor with vacuum in the gap
conduction current into the capacitor is equal to charge density
build-up:
jc
= d
dt

but E-field in gap is related tocharge

density:

So

where j is current density (current divided by cap. plate area)

E =

jc
= dE = jd
dt

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General form of Amperes law, extended

to include displacement currents

B d l = o(I c + I d)

= o I c + o d
dt

E ds

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Displacement Current

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dq
d( EA )
For a capacitor, q 0 EA and I dt 0 dt
.
d ( E )
Now, the electric flux is given by EA, so: I 0 dt ,
where this current , not being associated with charges, is
called the Displacement current, Id.

Hence:
and:

d E
I d 0 0
dt

B ds 0( I Id )
d

B ds 0 I 00 E
dt
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Faradays Law
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noted that a time-varying magnet field within a wire loop

induces a voltage around the loop
Without proof, we state the general form of Faradays law:

E dl = d
dt
C

B ds

summarizes the phenomena involved in transformers and

electric generators
holds in free space as well as within a conductor

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Maxwells Equations
In Free space and isotropic media
q
Gauss Law for Electrostatics E dA
0
Gauss Law for Magnetism

B dA 0

Faradays Law of Induction

B
E

dl

dt

Amperes Law

B dl 0 I
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The Equations of
Electromagnetism
Gausss Laws
1

q
E dA 0

B dA 0

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..monopole..

...theres no
magnetic monopole....!!
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The Equations of
Electromagnetism
Faradays Law
3

B
E

dl

dt
Amperes Law

B dl 0 I

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.... ifif you

you change
change aa
magnetic
magnetic field
field you
you
induce
induce an
an electric
electric
field.........
field.........
.......is
.......is the
the reverse
reverse
true..?
true..?

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...lets take a look at charge

flowing into a capacitor...
...when we derived Amperes Law
we assumed constant current...

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B dl 0 I

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...lets take a look at charge

flowing into a capacitor...
...when we derived Amperes Law
we assumed constant current...

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B dl 0 I
.. if the loop encloses one
plate of the capacitor..there
is a problem I = 0

Side view: (Surface

is now like a bag:)

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Maxwells Equations of Electromagnetism

in Vacuum (no charges, no masses)

q
E dA 0

E dA 0

B dA 0

B dA 0

d B
E dl dt
d

E
B

dl

0
0 0

dt

d B
E dl dt
d E
B dl 0 0
dt

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Electromagnetic Waves
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Faradays law:
dB/dt
electric field
Maxwells modification of Amperes law
dE/dt
magnetic field

d E
B dl 00 dt

d B
E dl dt

These two equations can be solved simultaneously.

The result is:

E(x, t) = EP sin (kx-t) j

B(x, t) = BP sin (kx-t) z
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Electromagnetic Waves
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d E
B dl 0 0 dt
B

dE
dt

d B
E dl dt
E

dB
dt

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Electromagnetic Waves
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d E
B dl 0 0 dt
B

dE
dt

d B
E dl dt

Special case..PLANE WAVES... E E y ( x ,t ) j

satisfy the wave equation
Maxwells Solution

dB
dt

B Bz ( x ,t )k

2
1 2
2 2
2
x
t

A sin( t )

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Plane Electromagnetic Waves

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Ey
Bz

c
E(x, t) = EP sin (kx-t) j

B(x, t) = BP sin (kx-t) z

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F(x)

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Static wave

F(x) = FP sin (kx + )

k = 2
k = wavenumber
= wavelength

F(x)

Moving wave
v
x

F(x, t) = FP sin (kx - t )

= 2 f
= angular frequency
f = frequency
v=/k
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F
v
x

Moving wave
F(x, t) = FP sin (kx - t )

What happens at x = 0 as a function of time?

F(0, t) = FP sin (-t)
For x = 0 and t = 0 F(0, 0) = FP sin (0)
For x = 0 and t = t F (0, t) = FP sin (0 t) = FP sin ( t)
This is equivalent to: kx = - t x = - (/k) t
F(x=0) at time t is the same as F[x=-(/k)t] at time 0
The wave moves to the right with speed /k

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Poynting Vector

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Taking the curl of one Stokes Law Maxwell equation

and substituting into the other, we can obtain:

E
2 E 2
t

and

B
2
B 2
t
2

assumptions:

J = 0

also, the identity

E=0

(no free charges)

( A)= ( A) 2 A

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Electric, Magnetic
Field Energy Density

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recall energy W stored in a capacitor

1
W CV 2
2
and basic parallel plate capacitor relations
A
C
d
V
E
d
then
1 A
2
Ed
2 d
1
W Ad E 2
2
then, define electric field energy density we ( J / m 3 )
W

W
1
E2
Ad 2
without proof, also note that magnetic field energy density wm is
we

wm

1 2
B
2

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Plane Wave Energy

Density

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so energy density in an EM wave is

1
1 2
2
w E
B
2
2
and in a traveling plane wave with E field in x direction
1
1 2
2
w Ex
By
2
2
B y
E x 1
w 1 2 1 2
Ex
By Ex
By
t 2 t
2 t
t

t
but from ME

E x 1 B y

t
z

and

B y
t

1
B y 1
w
E x
1

Ex By
Ex
By

t
z
z
z

E x
z

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Poynting Vector Sz
Concept

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Define a traveling wave function for z-direction energy

flux (energy/time/area)
S t kz
z

It can be shown (and is intuitively reasonable) that

w is energy/volume
in volume

dw
dxdydz S z dz S z dxdy
dt
w

S z wt kz
t
z

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Poynting Vector
Definition

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So based on the result in the previous

slide, it is reasonable (but needs foresight
based on knowledge of the answer!) to
conclude that

1
S z wt kz E B
u

units : W/m
2

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Energy Flux ~ E2
Substituting

E E x cos kz wt i
S z kz wt

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E
B B y cos kz wt j x cos kz wt j
v

1 2
E x cos 2 kz wt vE x2 cos 2 kz wt
v

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