OFDM AND OFDMA

TECHNOLOGIES

OUTLINE
NEED FOR MULTI-CARRIER
OFDM ENTERS INTO THE PICTURE
FFT

/ IFFT
GUARD TIME INSERTION
OFDM DRAWBACKS
CHANNEL ESTIMATION
OFDM BLOCK DIAGRAM
SIMULATION

RESULTS

NEED FOR MULTICARRIER

Time Domain Analysis

NEED FOR MULTI.CARRIER cont

Pulse completely
distorted. ISI is
.significant in this case

Pulse extended but the

extension are much smaller
than T the output behaves like
the transmitted rectangular
.pulse

NEED FOR MULTI-

.CARRIER cont
Frequency Domain Analysis

NEED FOR MULTI.CARRIER cont

Conclusion

Wide pulses is needed for simple

equalization,
But
Narrow pulses is needed for high data rate
Solution

Multiplexing

NEED FOR MULTI.CARRIER cont

NEED FOR MULTI.CARRIER cont

Problem

Solution
Orthogonality

NEED FOR MULTI-CARRIER

.cont

NEED FOR MULTI-CARRIER

.cont

OFDM ENTERS INTO THE

PICTURE
Interference Orthogonality
B.W efficiency Min Separation

OFDM ENTERS INTO THE

PICTURE cont.

Min Separation
Problem

Difficult Implementation with traditional

oscillators
Solution

DFT
But
DFT needs high processing
Solution
Easy implementation using FFT/IFFT

FFT / IFFT

FFT/IFFT

GUARD TIME
INSERTION
Channel
Filtering

GUARD TIME INSERTION

. cont

Problem

.
ISI occurs

GUARD TIME INSERTION

. cont

Solution Cyclic Prefix

.
No ISI
.Circular Convolution achieved

Cyclic prefix
The

CP allows the receiver to absorb much

more efficiently the delay spread due to the
multipath and to maintain frequency
Orthogonality.

The

CP that occupies a duration called the

Guard Time (GT), often denoted TG, is a
temporal redundancy that must be taken
into account in data rate computations.

OFDM DRAWBACKS

. cont
Peak to Average Power Ratio
(PAPR)

OFDM DRAWBACKS

. cont
Sensitivity to frequency offset

CHANNEL ESTIMATION
Pilot Based Channel Estimation
Estimated
Channel
Response

Received
Signal after
FFT

Known Pilots

CHANNEL ESTIMATION
.cont

Pilot
symbols
Data
symbols

Time (OFDM Symbols)

High channel frequency
selectivity

Frequency( sub
carriers)

Frequency( sub
carriers)

Pilot Arrangement Types

Block Pilot Patterns
Comb Pilot Patterns

Time (OFDM Symbols)

rapid changing channels

OFDMA
OFDMA is

a multiple access method based on

OFDM
signaling that allows simultaneous
transmissions to and from several users along
with the other advantages of OFDM.

OFDM versus OFDMA

IEEE802.16d
Fixed WiMAX,256-OFDM

IEEE802.16e
Mobile WiMAX

DIVERSITY AND
MIMO PRINCIPLES

?What is diversity
Is a technique that combats the
fading by ensuring that there will
be many copies of the transmitted
signal effected with different fading
.over time, frequency or space

1-Time diversity:
We averaging the fading of the
:channel over time by using
The channel coding and-1
.interleaving
Or sending the data at-2
.different times
to explain this we will see an
:example

:time diversity-1
|H(t)|

t
No interleaving x1 x2 x3 x4 y1 y2 y3 y4 z1 z2 z3 z4 h1 h2

h3 h4
interleaving
z4 h4

x1 y1 z1 h1 x2 y2 z2 h2 x3 y3 z3 h3 x4 y4

So we can see that only the 3rd symbol from each codeword lost and
.we can recover them from the rest symbols in each codeword

:frequency diversity- 2
This type of diversity used for the
frequency selective channels as we
will averaging the fading over the
:frequency by using
.Multi-carrier technique like OFDM-1
FHSS (frequency hope spread-2
.spectrum)
DSSS (direct sequence spread-3
.spectrum)

:frequency diversity- 2

We can see that each sub-band will effecting

.with different fading over the frequency

:spatial diversity-3
we will have many copies of the transmitted
signal effects with different fading over the
.space
we use multi-antenna systems at the transmitter
.or the receiver or at both of them

:Receive diversity

. The receiver will has many antennas-1

Each one has signal effecting with different -2
.fading
.number of different paths =Mr -3

Diversity order=Mr

:MIMO

In this type we use multi antennas at

both the transmitter and receiver as
.shown

Diversity order=Mt x Mr

:Notes
The higher diversity order we have
the better we combat the fading

:Notes
The diversity-1
reduces the BER
of the
communication
.system
Diversity order-2
. BER

:Notes

The distance between the

antennas must be larger than the
coherent distance to ensure that
. data streams are not correlated

?Question
How the receiver get the signal
?from the many copies reached

Answer

Diversity combining
technique

Combines the independent fading-1

paths signals to obtain a signal that
passed through a standard
.demodulator
The techniques can be applied to any-2
.type of diversity
combining techniques are linear as the-3
output of is a weighted sum of the
.different fading signals of branches
.It needs co-phasing-4

Diversity combining
technique

The signal output

from the
combiner is the
transmitted
signal s(t)
multiplied by a
random complex
amplitude term

Fading of the path

Type of
techniqu
e

Diversity order
Random SNR
from the
combiner

Diversity combining
technique

selection combining
technique
the combiner-1
outputs the
signal on the
branch with
the highest
.
SNR
no need here-2
for the co.phasing

Threshold combining
technique
As in SC since only one branch output is

used at a time and outputting the first

signal with SNR above a given threshold
. so that co-phasing is not required

Does not take

the largest SNR
so that its
performance less
than the SC
.technique

Special case at diversity

order =2 (SSC)

Maximal ratio combining

In maximal ratio
combining
(MRC) the
output is a
weighted sum
of all branches
due to its SNR

*h1

*h2

*h3

*hi

Equal gain combining

A
simpler technique is equal-gain combining,
technique

which co-phases the signals on each branch

and then combines them with equal weighting

MIMO
Traditional

diversity is based on multiple

receiver antennas
Multiple-In Multiple-Out (MIMO) is based on
both transmit and receive diversity
Also known as Space Time Coding (STC)
With Mt transmission antennas and Mr
receiver antennas we have Mt Mr branches
Tx

and Rx processing is performed over

space (antennas) and time (successive
symbols)

47

MIMO or STC
In

Mobile communication systems it may be

difficult to put many antennas in the mobile unit
Diversity in the downlink (from base station to
mobile station) can be achieved by Multiple-In
Single-Out (MISO) (i.e., Mr=1)
In

the uplink (from mobile station to base

station) diversity is achieved my conventional
diversity (SIMO)
Hence, all diversity cost is moved to the base
station
All 3G and 4G mobile communication system
employ MIMO in their standard
48

Type of MIMO
Two

major types of space time

coding
Space time block coding (STBC)
Space time trellis coding (STTC)

STBC

is simpler by STTC can provide

better performance
STBC is used in mobile
communications. STTC is not used in
any systems yet
We will talk only about STBC
49

Space Time Block Codes

There

are few major types

Transmit diversity: main goal is diversity gain

Spatial multiplexing: main goal is increase
data rate
Eigen steering: main goal is both. Requires
knowledge of the channel at the transmitter
side
Mix of the above: Lots of research
Transmit

diversity, spatial multiplexing

and simplified version of Eigen steering
are used in 3G and 4G standards
While in 3G standards MIMO was an
enhancement, in 4G MIMO is a main part
50

Transmit Diversity
Take

Mt=2 and Mr=1

Two symbols so and s1 are transmitted
over two transmission periods
No change in data rate (denoted as
rate 1 STBC)
Channel is known at receiver only

51

Transmit Diversity
Transmission

Transmission

6Ant
4 o7 Ant
481
s o s1 Timeo
S *
*

s
s
Time1
o
1

matrix:

matrix columns are orthogonal to

guarantee simple linear processing at the receiver
Other transmission matrices are defined in
literature
Received signal is:

s o s 1
ro
R *
*

s
s
r
o
1
1

Performance

g o
g
1

no

n1

is same as MRC with M=2

However, if Tx Power is the same, then transmit
diversity (2x1) is 3 dB worse than (1x2)
52

Transmit Diversity
Take

Mt=2 and Mr=2

Performance

is the same as MRC with M=4

However, if Tx Power is the same, then
transmit diversity (2x2) is 3 dB worse than
(1x4)

53

Performance
MRRC=Maximal

Ratio Receiver Combining

Note 3 dB difference in favor of Rx MRC
diversity
Reference: S. Alamouti, a simple transmit
diversity technique for wireless
communications,
IEEE JSAC, October 98
No
diversity

Orde
r4

Order
2

54

Spatial Multiplexing
ro s o g o s1 g 1
r1 s o g 2 s 1 g 3
Purpose

is to increase data rate (2x2 gives

twice data rate)
The 4 gains must be known at receiver
Simplest way zero forcing algorithm:
g o g 1 s o
ro
r g g s
1
142 2 433 1

so
H

G
G
s

ro
G
r1
H

55

Spatial Multiplexing
ro s o g o s1 g 1
r1 s o g 2 s 1 g 3

Optimum

method: Maximum Likelihood

Try all combinations of s1 and s2

Find the combination that minimizes the squared error:
2

e e ro so g o s1 g 1 r1 so g 2 s1 g 3
2
o

2
1

Complexity increases with high order modulation

56

Performance

Equal rate
comparison

Reference:
David Gesbert,
Mansoor Shafi,
Da-shan Shiu,
Peter J. Smith,
and Ayman
Naguib, From
theory to
practice: an
overview of
MIMO space
time coded
wireless
systems, IEEE
JSAC, April 2003

Zero
forcing
ML

Alamout
i

57

Eigenvalue Steering
Assume

a MIMO system

58

Eigenvalue Steering
Example

Any

y 1
y
2
y 3

y 4

with Mt = 2 and Mr=4

h11
h
21

h31

1h441 2

h 12

h 22 x 1
h 32 x 2

h 42

43

n1
n
2
n3

n4

y H x n

matrix H can
be represented
H
using Singular Value Decomposition as

H U V

is Mr by Mr and V is Mt by Mt unitary
matrices
is Mr by Mt diagonal matrix, elements
i
59

Eigenvalue Steering
Using transmit pre-coding and receiver
shaping

y% U H H x n
U H U V

x n

U H U V H V x% n
U H U V H V x%U H n
x% n%
60

Eigenvalue Steering
This

way we created r paths between the Tx

and specific Rx without any cross interference
The channel (i.e., Channel State Information)
must be known to both transmitter and
receiver
The value of r = rank of matrix H, r min(Mt,
Mr)
Not

all r paths have good SNR

Data rate can increase by factor r
See Appendix C for Singular Value
Decomposition
See Matlab function [U,S,V] = svd(X)
61

Example

Reference: Sanjiv Nanda, Rod Walton, John Ketchum, Mark

Wallace, and Steven Howard, A high-performance MIMO OFDM
wireless LAN, IEEE Communication Magazine, February 2005

62

INTRODUCTION TO LTE AND

ITS UNIQUE TECHNOLOGIES.

??What is LTE
The

3GPP LTE is acronym for long

term evolution of UMTS .
In order to ensure the competitiveness
of UMTS for the next 10 years and
beyond, concepts for UMTS Long Term
Evolution (LTE) have been introduced
in 3GPP release 8.
8
LTE is also referred to as EUTRA
(Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access)
or E-UTRAN (Evolved UMTS Terrestrial
Radio Access Network)

?What is LTE(cont.)
The

architecture that will result from

this work is called EPS (Evolved Packet
System) and comprehends E-UTRAN
(Evolved UTRAN) on the access side
and EPC (Evolved Packet Core) on the
core side.
Can be considered the real 3.9G &
invited to join the 4G family.
Also considered a competitive system
to mobile WiMAX as we will show

?What is LTE (cont.)

LTE DESIGN TARGETS

:-capabilities( a)
Scalable

MHz.

Peak

BW: 1.25, 2.5, 5.0, 10.0 and 20.0

data rate:

Downlink (2 Ch MIMO) peak rate of 100 Mbps in

20 MHz channel
Uplink (single Ch Tx) peak rate of 50 Mbps in 20
MHz channel

Supported antenna configurations:

Downlink: 4x4,4x2, 2x2, 1x2, 1x1

Uplink: 1x2, 1x1
Duplexing modes: FDD and TDD
Number
LTE

of active mobile terminals:

should support at least 200 mobile terminals in

the active state when operating in 5 MHz.
In wider allocations than 5 MHz, at least 400
terminals should be supported

 Spectrum

efficiency

Downlink: 3 to 4 x HSDPA Rel. 65bits/s/Hz

Uplink: 2 to 3 x HSUPA Rel. 62.5bits/s/hz

Latency

C-plane: <50 100 msec to establish U-plane

U-plane: <10 msec from UE to server

Mobility

Optimized for low speeds (<15 km/hr)

High performance at speeds up to 120 km/hr
Maintain link at speeds up to 350 km/hr

Coverage

Full performance up to 5 km
Slight degradation 5 km 30 km
Operation up to 100 km should not be
precluded by standard

INTRODUCTION TO
LTE KEY
TECHNOLOGIES

:-OFDM and OFDMA(1)

One

of the key technologies used in LTE and

WiMAX systems.
The problem ???
Due to the multipath the signal is received from many
paths with different phases that will result in
DELAY SPREAD :symbol
received along a delayed
:
path to bleed into a subsequent symbol (ISI)

FREQUENCY SELECTIVE FADING: : some

frequencies within the signal passband undergo
constructive interference while others encounter
destructive interference.The composite received signal
is distorted

 Old solutions of multipath fading include direct

channel equalization or spread spectrum
techniques(complex receiver is needed).

OFDM:
OFDM systems break the available bandwidth
into many narrower sub-carriers and
transmit the data in parallel streams
each OFDM symbol is preceded by a cyclic
prefix (CP),
(CP which is used to effectively
eliminate ISI.

In practice, the OFDM signal can be generated using IFFT

with a CP of sufficient duration,
duration preceding symbols do
not spill over into the FFT period and also this satisfy that
the output convolution with channel is complex gain
multiplication.
multiplication
Also, Once the channel impulse response is determined (by
periodic transmission of known reference signals),
distortion can be corrected by applying an amplitude
and phase shift on a subcarrier-by-subcarrier basis.
Problems of OFDM are: susceptibility to carrier frequency
errors (due either to local oscillator offset or Doppler shifts)
and a large signal peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR).

OFDMA
OFDMA is

a multiple access method based on OFDM

signaling that allows simultaneous transmissions to
and from several users along with the other
advantages of OFDM.

OFDM versus OFDMA

IEEE802.16d
Fixed WiMAX,256-OFDM

IEEE802.16e
Mobile WiMAX

Multi antenna( 2)
transmission
LTE

and WiMAX targets extreme

performance in terms of
Capacity
Coverage
Peak data rates

Advanced multi-antenna solutions is

the key tool to achieve this
Multi antenna systems are integral
part of those systems
Different antenna solutions needed
for different scenarios/targets
High peak data rates spatial
multiplexing
Good coverage Beam-forming
High performanceDiversity

Hybrid ARQ with soft(3)

combining
used

in LTE and WiMAX to allow the terminal to rapidly

request retransmissions of erroneously received
transport blocks.
The underlying protocol multiple parallel stop-and-wait
hybrid ARQ processes
Incremental redundancy is used as the soft combining
strategy and the receiver buffers the soft bits to be
able to do soft combining between transmission
attempts.

:Spectrum flexibility(1)
A high degree

of spectrum flexibility
is one of the main characteristics of
the LTE radio access.
The aim of this spectrum flexibility
is to allow for the deployment of the
LTE radio access in diverse spectrum.
The flexibility includes:
Different duplex arrangements.
Different frequency-bands-of-operation.
Different sizes of the available
spectrum.

3G LTE Duplex arrangement( a)

3G LTE Bandwidth flexibility( b)

LTE physical layer supports any bandwidth from

1.25 MHz to well beyond 20 MHz in steps of 200
kHz (one Resource Block)

Channel-dependent scheduling and( 2)

rate adaptation
LTE

use of shared-channel transmission,

in which the time-frequency resource is
dynamically shared between users.

Interference coordination(soft(3)
reuse)
Adaptive

reuse

Cell-center users: Reuse = 1

Cell-edge users: Reuse > 1

Relies on access to frequency domain

Applicable for both downlink OFDM and

uplink SC-FDMA

(4)SC-FDMA:LTE uplink requirements differ from downlink

requirements.

power consumption is a key consideration for UE

terminals.
The high PAPR and related loss of efficiency
associated with OFDM signaling are major concerns.

As a result, an alternative to OFDM was

sought for use in the LTE uplink.

Single Carrier Frequency Domain Multiple
Access (SC-FDMA) is well suited to the LTE uplink
requirements.
The basic transmitter and receiver architecture is
very similar (nearly identical) to OFDMA,
and it offers the same degree of multipath
protection.

Basic

block diagram:

transmitter :a QAM modulator coupled with the

addition of the cyclic prefix. This will eliminate ISI
as OFDMA

Reciever:

by using FFT & CP simple equalizer

are used (as OFDM).
Multipath distortion is handled in the same
manner as in OFDM(removal of CP, conversion to the
frequency domain, then apply the channel correction
on a subcarrier-by subcarrier basis).

:-LTE practical SC-FDMA

The practical transmitter is likely to take advantage of

FFT/IFFT blocks as well to place the transmission in the correct
position of the transmit spectrum in case of variable
transmission bandwidth.

SC-FDMA receiver

Frequency domain equalization (FDE) using

DFT/IDFT is more practical for such channels.

 The

fact of transmitting only a single symbol at a

time ensures a low transmitter waveform, compared
with the OFDMA case.
The resulting PAR/CM impact on the amplifier is thus
directly dependent on the modulation, whereas with
the OFDMA case it is the amount of subcarriers.
SC-FDMA subcarriers can be mapped in one of two
ways: localized or distributed
However, the current working assumption is that LTE
will use localized subcarrier mapping.
mapping
This decision was motivated by the fact that with
localized mapping, it is possible to exploit frequency
selective gain via channel dependent scheduling
(assigning uplink frequencies to UE based on favorable
propagation conditions).

(5) LTE Multicast/Broadcast

MBMS

Multimedia Broadcast/Multicast Service

OFDM allows for high-efficient MBSFN operation

Multicast/Broadcast Single-Frequency Networking

Identical transmissions from set of tightly
synchronized cells
Increased received power and reduced interference

Substantial boost of MBMS system throughput

LTE allows for multicast/broadcast and unicast
on the same carrier as well as dedicated
multicast/broadcast carrier

LTE RADIO INTERFACE

ARCHITECTURE

Introduction
Similar

to WCDMA/HSPA, as well as to
most other modern communication
systems, the processing specified for
LTE is structured into different
protocol layers.
layers
note that the LTE radio-access
architecture consists of a single node
the eNodeB. The eNodeB
communicates with one or several
mobile terminals, also known as UEs

Packet Data Convergence

Protocol (PDCP)
performs

IP header compression
to reduce the number of bits to transmit over the
radio interface.
The header compression mechanism is based on
Robust Header Compression (ROHC)a
ROHC
standardized header-compression algorithm also
used in WCDMA
PDCP is also responsible for ciphering and
integrity protection of the transmitted data. At
the receiver side, the PDCP protocol performs the
corresponding deciphering and decompression
operations.
There is one PDCP entity per SAE bearer
configured for a mobile terminal

Radio Link Control (RLC)

is

responsible for
segmentation/
segmentation concatenation,
concatenation
retransmission handling, and in-sequence
delivery to higher layers.
Unlike WCDMA, the RLC protocol is located in
the eNodeB since there is only a single type of
node in the LTE radio-access-network
architecture.
The RLC offers services to the PDCP in the
form of radio bearers .
There is one RLC entity per radio bearer
configured for a terminal.

Medium Access Control

(MAC)

handles hybrid-ARQ retransmissions

and uplink and downlink scheduling.
scheduling
The scheduling functionality is located
in the eNodeB, which has one MAC
entity per cell, for both uplink and
downlink.
The hybrid-ARQ protocol part is present
in both the transmitting and receiving
end of the MAC protocol.
The MAC offers services to the RLC in
the form of logical channels .

MAC scheduling

The basic operation of the scheduler is so-called

dynamic scheduling,
scheduling where the eNodeB in each 1
ms TTI makes a scheduling decision and sends
scheduling information to the selected set of

Downlink scheduling
dynamically

controlling
the terminal(s) to
transmit to
the set of resource
blocks upon which the
terminals DL-SCH
should be transmitted.
Transport-format
selection(selection of
transport-block size,
modulation scheme,
and antenna mapping)
And logical-channel
multiplexing for
downlink transmissions

UL scheduling
dynamically

control
which mobile
terminals are to
transmit on their ULSCH

and

on which uplink
time/frequency
resources
uplink scheduling
decision is taken per
mobile terminal and
not per radio bearer.

Physical Layer (PHY)

handles

coding/decoding,
modulation/demodulation, multiantenna mapping, and other
typical physical layer functions.
The physical layer offers services
to the MAC layer in the form of
transport channels

DOWNLINK PHY
LAYER OF (LTE)

LTE Generic Frame Structure

The

generic frame structure is used with FDD.

(TDD is also supported but not the trend).
LTE frames are 10 msec in duration.
They are divided into 10 subframes,
subframes each
subframe being 1.0 msec long.
Each subframe is further divided into two
slots,
slots each of 0.5 msec duration.
Slots consist of either 6 or 7 ODFM symbols,
depending on whether the normal or
extended cyclic prefix is employed.

Different

time intervals within the

LTE radio-access specification are
defined as multiples of a basic
time unit
Ts =
1/30 720 000.
The time intervals can thus also
be expressed as Tframe = 307
200 Ts and Tsubframe = 30 720
Ts

:-OFDMA For LTE Downlink

OFDMA

is an excellent choice of multiplexing

scheme for the 3GPP LTE downlink
allows the access of multiple users on the
available bandwidth.
Each user is assigned a specific time-frequency
resource.
resource
Allocation of PRBs is handled by a scheduling
function at the 3GPP base station (eNodeB).
The total number of available subcarriers depends
on the overall transmission bandwidth of the
system. The LTE specifications define parameters
for system bandwidths from 1.25 MHz to 20 MHz as
shown in Table.

PRB is defined as
consisting of 12
consecutive
subcarriers for one
slot (0.5 msec) in
duration.
A PRB is the
smallest element of
resource allocation
assigned by the base
station scheduler.
LTE

does not employ a

PHY preamble to
facilitate carrier offset
estimate, channel
estimation, timing
synchronization etc.
Instead, special reference
signals are embedded in
the PRBs

Downlink resource block

the

OFDM subcarrier spacing has been

chosen to f = 15 kHz.
Sampling rate fs =15 000NFFT , where NFFT is
the FFT size
the sampling rate f NFFT will be a multiple or
submultiple of the WCDMA/HSPA chip rate
(3.84 Mcps)
in the frequency domain the downlink
subcarriers are grouped into resource blocks
where each resource block consists of 12
consecutive subcarriers.
subcarriers In addition, there is
an unused DC-subcarrier in the center of the
downlink band. it may be subject to unproportionally high interference, for example,
due to local-oscillator leakage.

Downlink reference signal

To

carry out coherent

demodulation of different downlink
physical channels,
a mobile terminal needs estimates
of the downlink channel
Cell-specific downlink reference
signals.
UE-specific reference signal.
MBSFN reference signals

Cell-specific downlink
reference signals
consists

of known reference symbols inserted within

the first and third last OFDM symbol of each slot
and with a frequency-domain spacing of six
subcarriers
the mobile terminal should carry out
interpolation/averaging
over multiple reference
interpolation
symbols
There are 504 different reference-signal
sequences defined for LTE, where eachsequence
corresponds to one out of 504 different physicallayer cell identities

In

case of downlink multi-antenna

transmission the mobile terminal should be
able to estimate the downlink channel
corresponding to each transmit antenna
reference-signal structure for each antenna
port in case of multiple antenna ports within a
cell:
In case of two antenna the reference symbols
of the second antenna port are frequency
multiplexed with the reference symbols of the first
antenna port, with a frequency-domain offset of
three subcarriers.
In case of four antenna ports ,the reference
symbols for the third and fourth antenna ports are
frequency multiplexed within the second OFDM
symbol of each slot. Note that the reference
symbols for antenna port three and four are only
transmitted within one OFDM symbol

UE-specific reference
signals

LTE also allows for more general

beam-forming. In order to allow for
channel estimation also for such
transmissions, additional reference
signals are needed.
As such a reference signal can only
be used by the specific terminal to
which the beam-formed transmission
is intended, it is referred to as a UEspecific reference signal .

LTE block diagram (DL

transport channel
processing)

(1)CRC insertion:
In

the first step of the transport-channel

processing, a 24-bit CRC is calculated
for and appended to each transport
block.
The CRC allows for receiver side
detection of errors in the decoded
transport block.
The corresponding error indication is
then, for example, used by the downlink
hybrid-ARQ protocol as a trigger for
requesting retransmissions.

Code-block segmentation(2)
and per-code-block CRC
:The
insertion
LTE Turbo-coder
internal interleaver is
Turbo

only defined for a limited number of codeblock sizes with a maximum block size of
6144 bits.
bits
In case the transport block, including the
transport-block CRC, exceeds this
maximum code-block size, code-block
segmentation is applied before Turbo coding.
Code-block segmentation implies that the
transport block is segmented into smaller
code blocks that match the set of code-block
sizes defined for the Turbo coder.

 In

order to ensure that the

size of each code block is
matched to the set of
available code-block
sizes, filler bits may
have to be inserted at the
head of the first code
An additional (24 bits)
CRC is calculated for and
appended to each code
block.
Having a CRC per code
block allows for early
detection of correctly
decoded code blocks. This
can be used to reduce the
terminal processing effort
and power consumption.

FEC(forward error( 3)
:-correction)
The UL-SCH uses the same rate 1/3 turbo encoding

scheme (two 8-state constituent encoders and one

internal interleaver) as the DL-SCH.

The older interleaver used in HSPA been

replaced by QPP based interleaving .
the QPP interleaver provides a
mapping from the input (noninterleaved) bits to the output
(interleaved) bits according to the
function:

Rate-matching and physical-( 4)

layer
The task hybrid-ARQ
of the rate-matchingfunctionality
and physical-layer
hybrid-ARQ functionality is to extract, from the
blocks of code bits delivered by the channel encoder,
the exact set of bits to be transmitted within a
given TTI.
The outputs of the Turbo encoder (systematic bits,
first parity bits, and second parity bits) are first
separately interleaved.
interleaved
The interleaved bits are then inserted into what can
be described as a circular buffer with the
systematic bits inserted first, followed by alternating
insertion of the first and second parity bits.
The bit selection then extracts consecutive bits from
the circular buffer

Bit-level scrambling( 5)
LTE

downlink scrambling implies that the

block of code bits delivered by the hybridARQ functionality is multiplied (exclusiveor operation) by a bit-level scrambling
sequence (usually a gold code).
In general, scrambling of the coded data
helps to ensure that the receiver-side
decoding can fully utilize the processing
gain provided by the channel code

Modulation( 6)
The set of modulation schemes supported

for the LTE downlink includes QPSK, 16QAM,

and 64QAM.
All these modulation schemes are applicable
to the DL-SCH, PCH, and MCH transport
channels.
only QPSK modulation can be applied to the
BCH transport channel.

Multi antenna( 7)
transmission
LTE

supports the following multiantenna transmission schemes or

transmission modes , in addition
to single-antenna transmission:
Transmit diversity
Closed-loop spatial multiplexing
including codebook-based beamforming
Open-loop spatial multiplexing

Transmit diversity
LTE

transmit diversity is based on

Space Frequency Block Coding (SFBC)
SFBC implies that consecutive
modulation symbols Si and Si+1 are
mapped directly on adjacent
subcarriers on the first antenna port.
On the second antenna port, the
swapped and transformed symbols S*i+1 and Si*are transmitted on the
corresponding subcarriers

SFBC/FSTD(combined SFBC
and (Frequency Shift
Transmit Diversity

Closed loop Spatial

spatial multiplexing implies that multiple
multiplexing
streams or layers are transmitted in

parallel, thereby allowing for higher data rates

The LTE spatial multiplexing may operate in
two different modes: closed-loop spatial
multiplexing and open-loop spatial
multiplexing
where closed-loop spatial multiplexing relies
on more extensive feedback from the mobile
terminal.

General beam-forming
closed-loop

spatial multiplexing includes beamforming as a special case when the number of

layers equals one.
This kind of beamforming can be referred to as
codebook-based beam-forming , indicating that
the network selects one pre-coding vector (the
beam-forming vector) from a set of pre-defined precoding vectors (the codebook ) with the selection,
for example, based on the terminal reporting a
recommended pre-coding vector.
if not following the terminal recommendation, the
network must explicitly inform the terminal about
what pre-coding vector, from the set of predefined
vectors, is actually used for transmission to the
terminal.

UPLINK PHY LAYER

OF (LTE)

Uplink transmission
scheme

LTE uplink transmission is based on

so-called DFTS-OFDM transmission
Which is a single-carrier
transmission scheme that allows for
flexible bandwidth assignment
orthogonal multiple access not only in the
time domain but also in the frequency
domain.
the use of a cyclic prefix allows lowcomplexity frequency-domain equalization
at the receiver side.

TransmissionAccording
method
to
M
determines
the BW

Mapping is
applied to
consecutive
carriers
localized

OFDM mod.
position of
signal is
determined

DFT implementation
The

DFT size should preferably be

constrained to a power of two.
However, such a constraint is in direct
conflict with a desire to have a high degree
of flexibility of the bandwidth that can
be dynamically assigned to a mobile
terminal for uplink transmission all
possible DFT sizes should rather be allowed.
For LTE,
LTE a middle way has been adopted
where the DFT size is limited to products of
the integers two, three, and five.
For example, DFT sizes of 60, 72, and 96 are
allowed but a DFT size of 84 is not allowed.
In this way, the DFT can be implemented as
a combination of relatively low-complex
radix-2, radix-3, and radix-5 FFT processing

Uplink physical resource

parameters
Chosen

to be aligned,
aligned as much as
possible, with the corresponding
parameters of the OFDM-based LTE
downlink

spacing equals 15 kHz

resource blocks, consisting of 12 subcarriers
Any number of uplink resource blocks ranging
from a minimum of 6-110 resource blocks.
time-domain structure, the LTE uplink is very
similar to the downlink

However,

in contrast to the downlink, no

unused DC-subcarrier is defined for
the LTE uplink

Uplink reference signals

Demodulation

reference signals

(DRS )
reference signals for channel estimation
are also needed for the LTE uplink to
enable coherent demodulation of
different uplink physical channels
Sounding

reference signals (SRS)

are transmitted on the uplink to allow for

the network to estimate the uplink
channel quality at different
frequencies.

Basic principles of uplink

DRS transmission
Due

to the importance of low power

variations for uplink transmissions
The principles for uplink referencesignal transmission are different
from those of the downlink
certain DFTS-OFDM symbols are
exclusively used for reference-signal
transmission,
a reference signal is transmitted within
the fourth symbol of each uplink slot

Uplink sequences
Limited

power variations in the frequency

domain to allow for similar channelestimation quality for all frequencies.
Limited power variations in the time
domain to allow for high power-amplifier
efficiency.
Furthermore, sufficiently many
reference-signal sequences of the
same length, should be available to easily
assigning reference-signal sequences to
cells

ZadoffChu sequences
have

the property of constant power in

both the frequency and the time domain.

ZadoffChu

sequences are not suitable for

direct usage as uplink:
to maximize the number of ZadoffChu
sequences and to maximize the number of
available uplink reference signals, primelength ZadoffChu
sequences would be
Zadoff
preferred. At the same time, the length of the
uplink reference-signal sequences should be a
multiple of 12
For short sequence lengths, corresponding to
narrow uplink transmission bandwidths,
relatively few reference-signal sequences
would be available

Phase-rotated referencesignal sequences

by

cyclically extending different

prime-length Zadoff Chu sequences .
Additional reference-signal sequences
can be derived by applying different
linear phase rotations to the same
basic reference-signal sequences

sounding reference
signals

estimate the(SRS)
uplink channel quality at

different frequencies
A terminal can be configured to transmit SRS
at regular intervals ranging from as often
as once in every 2 ms (every second
subframe) to as infrequently as once in
every 160 ms (every 16th frame
the

frequency-domain scheduling:

entire frequency band of interest with a single SRS

OR
narrowband SRS that is hopping in the frequency
domain in such a way that a sequence of SRS
transmissions jointly covers the frequency band of
interest.

Uplink transport-channel
processing
uplink

transport-channel
processing are similar to
the corresponding steps
of the downlink
transport-channel
processing
no spatial multiplexing
or transmit diversity
currently defined for the
LTE uplink
As a consequence, there
is also only a single
transport block,
block of
dynamic size, transmitted
for each TTI.

LTE ACCESS
PROCEDURE

LTE cell search

Aim

Acquire frequency and symbol

synchronization to a cell.
Acquire frame timing of the cell, that is,
determine the start of the downlink frame.
Determine the physical-layer cell identity
of the cell.
two

special signals are transmitted on

the LTE downlink,
the Primary Synchronization Signal (PSS)
Secondary Synchronization Signal (SSS)

System information
In

LTE, system information is delivered

by two different mechanisms relying on
two different transport channels
A limited amount of system information,
corresponding to the so-called Master
Information Block (MIB), is transmitted
using the BCH.
The main part of the system information,
corresponding to different so-called System
Information Blocks (SIBs), is transmitted
using the downlink shared channel (DLSCH).

Random access
A

fundamental requirement for any cellular

system is the possibility for the terminal to
request a connection setup, commonly
referred to as random access .
In LTE, random access is used for several
purposes,
purposes including:

for initial access when establishing a radio link

(moving from RRC_IDLE to RRC_CONNECTED;
to re-establish a radio link after radio link failure;
for handover when uplink synchronization needs
to be established to the new cell;
to establish uplink synchronization if uplink or
downlink data arrives when the terminal is in
RRC_CONNECTED and the uplink is not
synchronized;
as a scheduling request if no dedicated
scheduling-request resources have been
configured on PUCCH.

paging
Paging

is used for network-initiated

connection setup.
An efficient paging procedure should
allow the terminal to sleep with no
receiver processing most of the time
and to briefly wake up at predefined
time intervals to monitor paging
information from the network.
In LTE, no separate pagingindicator channel is used

LTE ARCHITECTURE
AND SAE

LTE System Architecture

LTE System Architecture

cont.

Evolved

Radio Access Network (RAN)

UE: User Equipment
eNB: enhanced Node B

-Contains PHY, MAC, RLC (Radio Link Control)

, PDCP (Packet Data Control Protocol).
eNBs are connected together through the SGW.

.LTE System Architecture cont

Functions of eNodeB:
Radio Resources management.
Admission control.
Enforcement of negotiated UL QoS.
Cell information broadcast.
Ciphering/deciphering of user and
control plane data
Compression/decompression of
DL/UL user plane packet headers.

.LTE

System Architecture cont

Serving

Gateway (SGW)

-Routes and forwards user Data Packets.

-Mobility anchor for eNB handovers and LTE to other
3GPP systems.
(relaying the traffic between 2G/3G systems and
PDN GW).

Packet

Data Network Gateway (PDN GW)

-Connects UE to external packet data networks (serve

IP functions)
-Anchor for mobility between 3GPP and non-3GPP
technologies such as WiMAX and 3GPP2 (CDMA 1X and
EvDO).
- Performs policy enforcement , charging
support.

LTE System Architecture

.cont

Mobility Management Entity

(MME)

-Manage the UEs mobility.

-Idle-mode UE tracking and reachability .
-Paging procedure.
-Authentication and authorization.
- choosing the SGW for a UE at
the initial attach
-Security negotiations.

OVERVIEW OF LTE
ADVANCED

Fundamental requirements
for LTE-Advanced
complete

fulfillment of all the

requirements for IMT-Advanced
defined by ITU
LTE-Advanced has to fulfill a set of basic
backward compatibility requirements
Spectrum coexistence, implying that it

should be possible to deploy LTE-Advanced in

spectrum already occupied by LTE with no
impact on existing LTE terminals
infrastructure, in practice implying that it
should be possible to upgrade already
installed LTE infrastructure equipment to LTEAdvanced capability
terminal implementation

Extended requirements
beyond ITU requirements
Support

for peak-data up to 1 Gbps in the

downlink and 500 Mbps in the uplink.
Substantial improvements in system
performance such as cell and user
throughput with target values significantly
exceeding those of IMT-Advanced.
Possibility for low-cost infrastructure
deployment and terminals.
High power efficiency,
efficiency that is, low power
consumption for both terminals and
infrastructure.
Efficient spectrum utilization,
utilization including
efficient utilization of fragmented
spectrum

Technical components of
LTE-Advanced
Wider

bandwidth and carrier

aggregation
Extended multi-antenna solutions
Advanced repeaters and relaying
functionality
Coordinated multi-point
transmission

Wider bandwidth and

carrier aggregation
LTE-Advanced

will be an increase of the

maximum transmission bandwidth
beyond 20 MHz, perhaps up to as high as
100 MHz or even beyond
In case of carrier aggregation,
aggregation the
extension to wider bandwidth is
accomplished by the aggregation of basic
component carriers of a more narrow
bandwidth

Extended multi-antenna
solutions
support

for spatial multiplexing

on the uplink is anticipated to be
part of LTE-Advanced
extension of downlink spatial
multiplexing to more four layers
benefits of eight-layer spatial
multiplexing are only present in
special scenarios where high
SINR can be achieved

Coordinated multi-point
transmission
Coordinating

the transmission from the multiple

antennas can be used to increase the signalto-noise ratio for users far from the antenna
for example by transmitting the same signal from
multiple sites.
sites
Such strategies can also improve the poweramplifier utilization in the network, especially
in a lightly loaded network where otherwise
some power amplifiers would be idle

Advanced repeaters and

relaying functionality
Repeaters

simply amplify and forward the

received analog signals and are used already
today for handling coverage holes.
L1 relaysschemes
where the network can
relays
control the transmission power of the repeater
and, for example, activate the repeater only
when users are present in the area handled by
the repeater
intermediate node may also decode and reencode any received data prior to forwarding it
to the served users. This is often referred to as
decode-and-forward relaying

The proposals could roughly

:
be
categorized into
Various concepts for Relay Nodes

UE Dual TX antenna solutions for SU-MIMO and diversity MIMO

Scalable system bandwidth exceeding 20 MHz, Potentially up to
100MHz
Local area optimization of air interface
Nomadic / Local Area network and mobility solutions
Flexible Spectrum Usage
Cognitive Radio
Automatic and autonomous network configuration and
operation
Enhanced precoding and forward error correction
Interference management and suppression
Asymmetric bandwidth assignment for FDD
Hybrid OFDMA and SC-FDMA in uplink
UL/DL inter eNodeB coordinated MIMO

Timeframe
Standardization

is expected to be
included in 3GPP Release 10
timeframe.
The importance and timeframe of
LTE Advanced will of course largely
depend on the success of LTE
itself.
If possible LTE-Advanced will be a
software upgrade for LTE
networks.

Technology
Demonstrations
In

February 2007 NTT DoCoMo

announced the completion of a
4G trial
where they achieved a maximum
packet transmission rate of
approximately 5 Gbit/s in the
downlink using 100MHz
frequency bandwidth to a mobile
station moving at 10km/h