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THREE YEAR DIPLOMA PROGRAM IN

COMPUTER ENGINEERING
COMPUTER GRAPHICS
CODE : 6284
THIRD YEAR ( SESSION 1999 - 2000 )
Number of Slides
: 1000
Two floppies include 1000 Slides.
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Features of Computer Graphics

Computer graphics is one of the most exciting
and rapidly growing field in computer
science. Some
of the most sophisticated
computer system in use today are designed

for the generation of graphics displays.
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Features of Computer Graphics

We all know the value of a picture as an
effective means for communication and the
ability to converse pictorially with a computer
is revolutionizing the way computers are
being used in all areas.
Computers have become a powerful tool
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You may Learn

For the rapid and economical production of pictures. There
is virtually no area in which graphics displays cannot be
used to some advantage and so it is not surprising to find
the me of computer graphics 30 widesprect.
Although early applications in engineering and science
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You may Learn

Had to rely on expensive and comber some
equipments ,advances in computer
technology hare made interactive computer
graphics a practical tool. Today, we find
computer graphics used routinely in such
diverse areas as business , research ,
training and medicine.
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Teaching Scheme
Total Number of Lectures 3 per Week
Practical 3 per Week
3+3=6
Theory 15 credits and 10 marks for Practical .

Total No. of credits are 15+10=25(Internal Assessment )
75 +25 =100 (External Assessment)

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GRAPHIC SYSTEMS
Display devices
Physical input and output devices
Display
processors
graphics
software
coordinate representation,
Graphics functions and standards.
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OUTPUT PRIMITIVES
Point plotting
Line drawing algorithms-DDA algorithms
Bresenhams line algorithms
Circle generating algorithms
Ellipses
Attributes and construction techniques
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TWO-DIMENSIONAL
TRANSFORMATIONS
Basic
transformationstranslation,scaling,rotation,matrix
representations
and
homogeneous
coordinates
Composite transformations- scaling relative to
a fixed pivot,rotation about a pivot
point,general transformation equation,other
transformation
Reflection.
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WINDOWING AND
CLIPPING TECHNIQUES
Windowing concepts
Clipping algorithms
Area clipping
Line clipping
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WINDOWING AND
CLIPPING TECHNIQUES
Polygon clippings
Text clippings
Blanking
Window-to-view point transformations,
Cohen sutherland clipping algorithm.
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ANIMATION TECHNIQUES
Animation perspectives
Computer animation hardware
Computer animation software and
applications
PC animations,concept of simulations.
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PROJECTION
Perspective and parallel transformation
Vanishing points
Perspective
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LABORATORY WORK
Line drawing
DDA
Bresenhams circle generation
Two-dimensional transformation
Computer animation
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LABORATORY WORK
Windowing and clipping
Projection of a cube or any other three
dimensional figure using parallel and
perspective transformation.
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Evaluation Scheme
Study Scheme
HRS/Week Internal Assessment
Th Pr
3
Tot
6
Th
15
Pr
10
Tot
25
External Assessment
Marks
Th Hrs Pr Hrs Tot

75
3
100
25 3
Ext.Int
125
Minimum Passing Marks 30 out of 75

Minimum Passing Marks 10 out of 25
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Style of Examination
Theory Paper
Total Marks (75 Th) Duration (3 Hrs)
Passing Marks 30
Multiple Choice, True False, Fill in the
blanks, Short Answer Type and Descriptive
Answer Questions.
You have to attempt 5 out of 8.
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Style of Examination
Practical
Total Marks 25
Passing Marks 10
Duration 3 Hrs
Practical performance, Viva, Theory test

and working File on the bases of mentioned
above student may get marks.
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List of Practical
(1). Write a program to draw a line using simple
method .
(2). Write a program to draw a line using DDA
algorithm in C.
(3). Write a program to draw a line using
BRESENHAMs algorithm in C.
(4). Draw the triangle using DDA line draw
algorithm.
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List of Practical
(5).Draw the rectangle using DDA line draw
algorithm.
(6).Write a program to draw a circle using
midpoint circle generation algorithm.
(7).Write a program to draw a ellipse using
midpoint circle generation algorithm.
(8).Write a program to translate a point.
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List of Practical
(9). Write a program to translate scale and rotate
a line.
(10). Write a program to translate scale and
rotate a triangle.
(11). Write a program for motion of a man with
animation effects in C language.
(12). Write a program for windowing and
clipping of line, polygon.
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BOOKS AND REFERENCES

1.Principles Of interactive computer graphics
by WM NEWMAN and RF SPRAULL.
2.Theory And problems Of
computer
graphics by ROY A PLASTOCK and
GORDON
KALLEY,
McGraw-HILL
PUBLISHERS , SCHAUMS AUTHINE
SERIES.
3.Interactive
computer
graphics
by
HARENGTON.
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BOOKS AND REFERENCES

4.Computer graphics programming approach by
STEVEN HARRINGTON.
5.Computer graphics by DONALD HEARN AND M
PAULINE BAKER.
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INTRODUCTION
Computers have become a

powerful tool for the
RAPID AND
ECONOMICAL PRODUCTION
of pictures.
There is virtually no area in which graphical
displays cannot be used to some advantage.
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INTRODUCTION
Although early applications in engineering and

science had to
relay on
EXPENSIVE AND
CUMBERSOME EQUIPMENT
Advances in computer technology have made

interactive computer graphics a practical tool
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INTRODUCTION
Computer graphics today is largely
interactive:
the user controls
#
CONTENTS
# STRUCTURE &
# APPEARANCE OF OBJECTS
The use of bitmap graphics is for user

computer interaction.
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INTRODUCTION
Bitmap is a ones & zeros

representation of the rectangular array of
points i.e.
PIXELS OR
PELS OR
PICTURE ELEMENTS
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INTRODUCTION
Images of objects are displayed by using

input devices such as :
KEYBOARD
MOUSE OR
TOUCH-SENSITIVE PANEL
on the screen.
The user could
CREATE
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INTRODUCTION
POSITION AND
RESIZE
Rectangular screen areas
That acted as :
#
called windows.
VIRTUAL GRAPHICS TERMINALS &
# EACH TERMINAL RUNNING AN

APPLICATION.
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INTRODUCTION
Direct manipulation of objects via :
POINTING &
CLICKING
Replaced much of the typing of the arcane

commands used in earlier operating
systems and computer applications.
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INTRODUCTION
Computer graphics is no longer a rarity.
Computer graphics is an integral part of

all coputer user interfaces, and is
indispensable for visualizing
2-D,
3-D AND
HIGHER DIMENSIONAL OBJECTS.
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COMPUTER GRAPHICS
APPLICATIONS
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

COMPUTER ART
ENTERTAINMENT
EDUCATION AND TRAINING
VISUALIZATION
IMAGE PROCESSING
GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACES
PROCESS CONTROL
CARTOGRAPHY
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COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

Computer aided design methods are now
routinely used in the design of :
BUILDINGS,
AUTO-MOBILES,
AIRCRAFT,
WATRECRAFT,
SPACECRAFT,
TEXTILES and many other
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COMPUTER ART
Computer graphics methods
are widely used in both fine :
ART &
COMMERCIAL ART.
APPLICATIONS.
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ENTERTAINMENT
Computer graphics methods are
now commonly used in making :
MOTION PICTURES,
MUSIC VIDEOS,
TELEVISION SHOWS.
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EDUCATION & TRAINING

Computer generated models of physical,
financial, and
economic systems are often
used as educational aids.
Models of physical systems, population

trends, or equipment, such as the color coded
diagram can help trainees to understand the
operation of the system.
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EDUCATION & TRAINING
Population trends, or equipment, such
as the color coded diagram can help

trainees to understand the operation of the
system.
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VISUALIZATION
Producing graphical repress-entertains

for scientific, engineering, and medical data
sets and processes is generally referred to as
scientific visualization.
The term business visualization is used
in connection with data sets related to
commerce , industry, and other nonscientific
areas.
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IMAGE PROCESSING
IMAGE PROCESSING Applies techniques
to modify or interpret existing pictures, such as
PHOTOGRAPHS AND
TV SCANS.
APPLICATIONS OF IMAGE PROCESSING

ARE :
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IMAGE PROCESSING
IMPROVING PICTURE QUALITY,
MACHINE PRECEPTION OF VISUAL

INFORMATION AS USED IN
ROBOTICS,
RETOUNCING & REARRANGING OF

SECTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHS
AND OTHER ART-WORK.
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GRAPHICAL USER
INTERFACES
Graphical interface is a window
manager that allows a user to display
multiple-window areas.
Interfaces also display menus and
menus for fast selection of processing
options.
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PROCESS CONTROL
Status displays in
REFINERIES ,
POWER PLANTS &
COMPUTER NETWORKS
Show data values from sensors attached to

critical system components, so that operators
can respond to problematic conditions.
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PROCESS CONTROL
IN IT
FLIGHT SIMULATORS OR
ARCADE GAMES
Let users interact with a simulation

of a real or artificial world.
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CARTOGRAPHY
Computer graphics is used to produce both

accurate and schematic representations of :
GEOGRAPHICAL AND
OTHER NATURAL PHENOMENA
from
measurement data.
Examples :-
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e.g.
GEOGRAHPICAL MAPS,
RELIEF MAPS,
EXPLORATION MAPS FOR DRILLING &

MINING,
WHEATHER MAPS &

POPULATION DENSITY MAPS.
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CLASSIFICATION OF
APPLICATIONS
First classification is by type (dimensionality) of
the object to be represented and the kind of picture
to be produced.
The second classification is by the type of

interaction, which determines the users degree of
control over the object & its image
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CLASSIFICATION OF
APPLICATIONS
The 3rd classification is by the role
of the picture , or the degree to which
the picture is an end in itself or is
merely a means to an end.
Final categorization arises from the
logical temporal relationship between
objects & their pictures.
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CLASSIFIACTION OF
COMPUTER GRAPHICS BY
OBJECT & PICTURE
TYPE OF
OBJECT
2-D
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION
LINE DRAWING,
GRAY SCALE IMAGE,
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TYPE OF
OBJECT
PICTORIAL REPRESENTATION
3-D
LINE DRAWING (WIREFRAME),
DRAWING WITH VARIOUS EFFECTS,
LINE
SHADED,
COLOR IMAGE WITH VARIOUS
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CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
FOR INTERACTIVE GRAPHICS
APPLICATION
MODEL
APPLICATION
PROGRAM
V.D.U.
GRAPHICS
SYSTEM
INPUT DEVICES
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR INTERACTIVE GRAPHICS
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APPLICATION PROGRAM : IT
CREATES,
STORES
INTO,
AND
RETRIEVES FROM THE APPLICATION
MODEL.
APPLICATION MODEL : WHICH

REPRESENTS THE DATA OR OBJECTS
TO BE PICTURED ON THE SCREEN.
VIDEO DISPLAY UNIT
INPUT DEVICES
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GRAPHICS SYSTEM
GRAPHICS SYSTEM :
# A series of graphics output commands
that contain both a detailed geometric of

what is to be viewed and the attributes
describing how the objects should appear.
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GRAPHICS SYSTEM
# The graphics system is an intermediary
between the application program and the

display hardware that effects an output
transformation from objects in the
application model to a view of the model.
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GRAPHICS SYSTEM
# It effects an input trans-formation
from user action to input to the

applications program that will cause
the application program that will cause
the application to make changes in the
model and or picture.
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COMPONENTS OF
GRAPHICS SYSTEM
VIDEO DISPLAY DEVICES
RASTER SCAN SYSTEMS
RANDOM SCAN SYSTEMS
GRAPHIC MONITERS & WORKSTATIONS
INPUT DEVICES
HARD COPY DEVICES
GRAPHIC SOFTWARE.
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APPLICATION MODEL
The application model captures all the
DATA,
OBJECTS AND
RELATIONSHIPS Among then that are
relevant to the display and interaction part

of the application program and to any
non graphical
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APPLICATION MODEL
Postprocessing modules.
# Examples of such post-processing
module are analyses of the transient
behavior of a circuit or of the stress in an
aircraft wing.
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APPLICATION MODEL
# A data model can be as rudimentary as
an array of data points or as complex as

a linked list representing a network data
structure or a relational database the
terms are used interchangeably.
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APPLICATION MODEL
# Models typically store descriptions of
primitives that define the shape of

components of the object attributes such
as line style, color,or surface texture;and
connectivity relationships and positioning
data that describe how the components fit
together.
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MAJOR RASTER-SCAN CRT COMPONENTS
1. ELECTRON
GUN
2. CONTROL ELECTRODE
3. FOCUSING ELECTRODE
4. DEFLECTION YOKE
5. PHOSPHORUS-COATED SCREEN
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CRT COMPONENTS
ELECTRON GUN
Consisting of a series of components

which together cause electrons to
congregate at the end of the electron
gun.
The electrons are then accelerated by

application of an electric field.
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CRT COMPONENTS
CONTROL ELECTRODE
Used to regulate the flow of electrons.

The control electrode is connected to an
amplifier which is connected to the output
circuitry of the computer.
Thus allowing the computer to control
when the electron beam is turned off and on.
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CRT COMPONENTS
FOCUSING ELECTRODE
Used to create a clean picture by

focusing the electrons into a narrow beam.
The focusing electrode serves this

purpose by exerting an electromagnetic
force on the electrons in the electron beam.
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CRT COMPONENTS
DEFLECTION YOKE :
Used to control the direction of the electron beam.
It creates an electric or magnetic field which will

bend the electron beam as it passes through field.
In a conventional CRT the yoke is connected to a
sweep or scan generator.
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EXAMPLE OF SIGNAL FROM SCAN GENERATOR

SCAN
RETRACE
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CRT COMPONENTS
PHOSPHORUS-COATED SCREEN
Phosphorus coating on the inside front

surface of every CRT.
This surface is coated with special crystals

called phosphorus,which have a unique
property that allows the entire system to work.
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CRT COMPONENTS
REFRESH AND FLICKER
Each time the electron beam goes

through a complete cycle of raster or scan
lines, the CRT is said to be refreshed.
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CRT COMPONENTS
It is very important that the persistence of
the phosphor used and the refresh rate be
matched.
Otherwise, an image on the CRT may

appear to flash rapidly on and off. When
flashing of this type does occur, it is called
flicker.
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CRT COMPONENTS
INTERLACING
Since the perceptual threshold is greater

than the frequency of standard line voltage,
then a technique called interlacing is often
used.
Again, the refresh rate and the persistence
of the phosphor must be matched.
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INTERFACING
RASTER LINE
NUMBER
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
31
ODD RASTER LINES
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2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
EVEN RASTER LINES
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CRT COMPONENTS
If the refresh rate is greater than the
phosphors persistence, moving objects
will tend to become blurred.
On the other hand, if the refresh rate

significantly longer than the phosphors
persistence , the user will perceive flicker.
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CRT COMPONENTS
ASPECT RATIO
Aspect ratio is an output devices

width-height most standard CRTs
have a display area with an aspect ratio
of 4:3 is shown in figure :
12 in
9 in
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A CRT
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CRT COMPONENTS
RESOLUTION
The graphics programmer must also

consider resolution of the system .
resolution is normally described in terms of

the number of pixel.
For example, if a system can produce 512

pixels in the horizontal direction and 384
pixels in the vertical, the device would be
described as having a 512*384 pixels display.
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CRT COMPONENTS
SQUARENESS
Squareness is the ability of a system to

accurately reproduce a square model in the
computer memory as a square on the display
with no manipulation other than uniformly
scaling the model to the memory map.
If the aspect ratio and resolution are not

equal, it is often impossible to do this scaling
without the use floating point division.
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CRT COMPONENTS
FIT
Fit is how well model data will fit in
the memory map without scaling.
In fitting model data to the

memory map
# it is best to work within
boundaries of the memory map.
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The primary output device in a
graphics system is a video monitor.
The operation of most video monitors
is based on the standard
CATHODE RAY
TUBE (CRT) Design.
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But most other technologies exist
& solid state monitors may eventually

predominate.
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MAGENTIC DEFLECTION COILS

BASE
FOCUSING
SYSTEM
PHOSPHOR
COATED
SCREEN
CONNECTOR
PINS
ELECTRON
BEAM
ELECTRON
GUN
BASIC DESIGN OF MAGENTIC DEFLECTION CRT.
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REFRESH CATHOD RAY TUBES
WORKING
A beam of electrons emitted by an electron

gun,
Passes through focusing,
and then deflection systems that direct the

beam on the phosphor-coated screen.
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REFRESH CATHOD RAY TUBES

To keep the phosphor glowing is
to redraw the picture repeatedly by
quickly directing the electron beam
back over the same points.
This type of display is called a
Refresh CRT.
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CATHODE
FOCUSING
ANODE
ELECTRON
BEAM PATH
HEATING
FILAMENT
CONTROL GRID
ACCELRATING
ANODE
OPERATION OF ELECTRONIC GUN WITH AN

ACCELRATING ANODE
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OPERATION OF ELECTRONIC GUN

WITH AN ACCELRATING ANODE
Heat is supplied to the cathode by directing

a current through a coil of wire called
filament.
In the vacuum inside the CRT envelope,
#
the free,
# negatively charged electrons are then
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Accelrated toward the phosphor

coating by a high positive voltage.
The accelrating voltage can be

generated with a positively charged metal
coating on the inside of the CRT
envelope near the phosphor screen.
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Magnetic lens focusing products the
smallest spot size on the screen.

Spots of light are produced on the
screen by the transfer of the CRT beam
energy to the phosphor.
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The frequency
or
color of
light emitted by the phosphor is
proportional to the energy difference
between the excited quantum state & the
ground state.
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Different types of phosphors are availble for
use in crt.
Besides color , a major difference between
phosphors is their perisistence :
# how long they continue to emit light i.e.
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that is have excited electrons returning to the
ground state after the CRT beam is removed.
PERSISTENCE is defined as the time it
takes the emitted light from the screen to decay

to one tenth of its original intensity.
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PERSISTENCE
A phosphor with low persistence is useful
for animation ;
A high persistence phosphor is useful for
displaying highly complex, static pictures.
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Some phosphors have a persistence

greater than one second,
Graphic monitors are usually

constructed with the persistence in
range from 10-60 micro-seconds.
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Maximum no of points that can

displayed without on a CRT is referred to
as resolution.
A more precise definition of resolution

is the no. of points per centimeter that
can be plotted horizontally or vertically.
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Resolution of a CRT is dependent on
The type of phosphor,
The intensity to be displayed and
The focusing & deflection systems.
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Typical resolution on high quality systems is
1280 by 1024.
High resolution systems are often referred to as
high definition systems.
The physical size of graphic monitor is given as

the length of screen diagonal, with sizes varying
from about 12 to 27 or more.
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Another property of video monitors is

aspect ratio.
This number gives the ratio of vertical

points to horizontal points necessary to
produce equal length lines
in both
directions on the screen.
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Some times aspect ratio is stated in terms

of the ratio of horizontal to vertical points.
An aspect ratio of 3/4 means that a

vertical line plotted with three points has the
same length as the horizontal line plotted
with four points.
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RASTER SCAN DISPLAY
In a raster scan system, electron beam is

swept across the screen, one row at a time
from top to bottom. As the electron beam
moves across each row, the beam intensity
is turned on and off to create pattern of
luminated spots.
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RASTER SCAN DISPLAY
A RASTER SCAN SYSTEM DISPLAYS AN OBJECT AS

A SET OF DISCRETE POINTS ACROOS EACH SCAN
LINE.
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RASTER SCAN DISPLAY

Picture defination is stored in a memory
area called the refresh buffer or frame buffer.
This memory area holds the set of

intensity values are then retrieved from the
refresh buffer and painted on the screen one
row(scan line ) at a time.
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RASTER SCAN DISPLAY

Each screen point is referred to as a pixel or pel
or picture element.
In a simple black and white system each screen

point is either on or off so only one bit per pixel is
needed to control the intensity of screen positions.
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RASTER SCAN DISPLAY

For a bilevel system, a bit value of 1
indicates that the electron beam is to be
turned on at that position , & a value of
0 indicates that the beam intensity is to
be off.
Additional bits are needed when color
and intensity variations can be displayed.
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RASTER SCAN DISPLAY
Up to 24 bits per pixel are included in high

quality
systems, which require
several
megabytes of storage for the frame buffer,
depending on resolution of the system.
A system with 24 bits per pixel and a screen
resolution of 1024 x 1024 requires 3 megabytes
of storage for frame buffer, on a black and white
system with one bit per pixel.
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RASTER SCAN DISPLAY

The frame buffer is commonly called
bitmap.
For systems with multiple bits per pixel, the
frame buffer is often referred to as a pixmap.
Refreshing on raster scan displays is carried
out at the rate of 60 to 80 frames per seconds.
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RASTER SCAN DISPLAY
Some systems are designed for higher refresh rates.
Some times, refresh rates are described in unit of

cycle per second or Hz, where a cycle corresponds to
on frame.
Using these units : we would describe a refresh rate
of 60 frames per sec as simply 60 Hz.
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107
RASTER SCAN
Scan Line
Horizontal
Retrace
Vertical
Retrace
Today a 60 Hz or higher refresh rate is used to

avoid flickering of the image.
In a raster system the entire image of, 1024 lines

of 1024 pixels each.
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108
RASTER SCAN DISPLAY

At the end of each scan line the electron
beam returns to the left side of the screen to
begin displaying the next scan line.
Then return to the left of screen.
After refreshing each scan line is called

the horizontal retrace of the electron beam.
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109
RASTER SCAN DISPLAY

And at the end of each frame
(display in 1/80th to 1/60th of a
second) ,
The electron beam returns to the top

left corner of the screen to begin the
next frame is called vertical retrace.
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110
RANDOM-SCAN
DISPLAY
In a random-scan display unit,
a CRT has the
electron beam directed only to the parts of the

screen where a picture is to be drawn.
Random scan monitors draw a picture one line at
a time and for this reason are also refer to as
Vector displays (stroke-writing) or Calligraphic
displays.
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111
RANDOM-SCAN DISPLAY
A RANDOM SCAN SYSTEM DRAWS THE

COMPONENT LINES OF AN OBJECT IN ANY
ORDER SPECIFIED.
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112
RANDOM-SCAN DISPLAY
A pen plotter operates in a similar way
and is an example of random scan,
hardcopy device.
Refresh rate on a random scan system

depends on the no. of lines to be displayed.
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113
RANDOM-SCAN DISPLAY
Picture defination is now stored as a set of
line drawing commands in an area of memory
referred to as refresh display file.
Some times refresh display file is called
display list
display program or
simply the refresh buffer.
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114
RANDOM-SCAN DISPLAY
Random scan displays are designed to
draw all the component lines of a picture
30 to 60 times each second.
High quality vector systems are capable
of handling approximately 100,000 short
lines at this refresh rate.
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115
RANDOM-SCAN DISPLAY
Random-scan systems are designed for :
Line-drawing applications and

Cannot display realistic shaded scenes.
Vector displays generally have higher
resolution than raster systems.
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116
RANDOM-SCAN DISPLAY
Also vector displays produce smooth line
drawing because the CRT beam directly
follows the line path.
A raster systems , in contrast , produces

jagged lines that are plotted as discrete point
sets.
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117
RANDOM SCAN VERSUS

RASTER SCAN
IDEAL LINE DRAWING
RASTER SCAN WITH OUTLINE PRIMITIVES
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RASTER SCAN WITH FILLED PRIMITIVES
CG-6284
118
COLOUR CRT MONITORS

A CRT monitor display color pictures
by using a combination of phosphors that
emit different- colored light.
Two basic techniques for producing

color displays with CRT are :
The beam penetration method.
The shadow-mask method.
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119
BEAM -PENETRATION
The beam penetration method for

displaying color pictures has been with
random scan monitors.
Two layers of phosphor, usually red and
green are coated on to the inside of the CRT
screen and the displayed color depends on
how for the electron beam penetrates into the
phosphor layers.
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120
BEAM -PENETRATION
A beam of slow electron excites only the
outer red layer.
A beam of very fast electrons penetrates
through the red layer and excites the inner
green layer.
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121
BEAM -PENETRATION
Beam penetration has been an
inexpensive way to produce color in
random scan monitors, but only four
colors are possible, and the quietly of
picture is not as good as with other
methods .
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122
SHADOW MASK METHOD

ELECTRON
GUNS
SELECTION OF
SHADOW
MASK
MAGNIFIED
PHOSPHOR-DOT
TRIANGLE
RED
GREEN BLUE
SCREEN
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123
SHADOW-MASK
Shadow-mask methods are commonly

used in raster-scan systems, the delta-delta
shadow-mask methods, commonly used in
color CRT systems.
When the three beam pass through a hole
in shadow-mask, they activate a dot triangle,
which appears as small color spot on the
screen.
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124
SHADOW-MASK
The phosphor dots in the triangles are

arranged so that each electron beam can
activate only its corresponding color dot
when it pass through the shadow-mask.
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125
DIRECT VIEW STORAGE TUBES
A direct view storage tube stores the picture

information as a charge distribution just behind
the phosphor-coated screen.
Two electron guns are used in a DVST.
One the primary gun is used to store the

picture pattern.
The flood gun, maintains the picture

display.
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126
FLAT PANEL DISPLAY

The term flat panel display refers to a class
of video devices that have reduced:
VOLUME ,
WEIGHT AND
POWER
Requirements compared to a CRT.
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127
FLAT PANEL DISPLAY
We can separate flat panel displays into two
categories :
EMISSIVE DISPLAY
OR
EMITTERS
Are devices that convert electrical energy into light.
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128
FLAT PANEL DISPLAY

EXAMPLES OF EMISSIVE DISPLAY
# PLASMA PANELS,
# THIN FILM ELCTRO
LUMINESCENT DISPLAYS &
# LIGHT EMITTING DIODES
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FLAT PANEL DISPLAY
NON-EMISSIVE DISPLAY OR NON EMITERS
Use optical effects to convert sunlight or light
from some other source into graphics pattern.

Important example is a liquid crystal device
(LCD).
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130
FLAT PANEL DISPLAY

PLASMA PANELS OR GASDISCHARGE DISPLAYS : Are
constructed by filling the region
between two glass plates with a
mixture of gases that usually includes
neon.
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131
PLASMA DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES

The components of a plasma and
related displays are as follows :
CATHODES :
Fine wires attached to a glass plate

which delivers negative voltage to the gas
cells on the vertical axis.
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132

FLUORESCENT CELLS
# Small pockets of gas liquids or solids
are excited when a voltage is applied.

# In the excited state the substance
emits light.
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133

GLASS PLATES
# Plates that act as capacitor in dc plasma
display and maintain voltage to ensure that

a cell will continue to glow after the cell
has received a single burst of power.
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134

# To remain lit, alternating-current plasma
display must supply background voltage.
ANODES
# Fine wires attached to a glass plate
supply positive voltage along horizontal

axis.
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135
1. CATHODE
2. ELECTROFLUORESESCENT
MATERIAL
3. ANODE
4. GLASS
PLATES
ELECTROFLUORESESCENT DISPLAY
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136
FILM ELECTROLUMINESCENT DISPLAYS

FILM
ELECTROLUMINESCENT
DISPLAYS are similar in construction to a
plasma panel.
The difference is that the region between the
glass plates is filled with a phosphor, such as
zinc sulfide doped with manganese.
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137
FILM ELECTROLUMINESCENT DISPLAYS
Electroluminescent
displays
require more power than plasma
panels
Good color and
Gray scale displaced are hard to
achieve.
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138
FLAT PANEL DISPLAY

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES
A matrix of diodes is arranged to form the
pixel positions in the display ,
and picture definition is stored in a refresh
buffer.
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139
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)
These non-emissive devices produce a

picture by passing polarized light from the
surroundings or from an internal light source
through a liquid-crystal material that can be
aligned to either block or transmit the light.
#
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140
Unlike most other types of display, liquid
crystal displays(LCDs) depend on an

outside light source.
This is because LCDs work by polarizing
ambient light.
Liquid crystal displays can be viewed
only front a limited angle.
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141
To observe this, hold a calculator that

uses an LCD at arms length in front of
you.
Next, turn the calculator slowly back and
forth along its vertical axis. You should
observe the number on the display
fading as calculator display makes a
greater angle with your line of sight.
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142
A LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY CELL

DISPLAY DEVICES
Liquid crystal
3
Conducting
coating
2
Trans1 parent
plates
4 Polarized film
DTEIT 19/8/
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143

The basic components of an LCDs are as follows :
GLASS OR PLASTIC PLATE
# Contains liquid crystal and serves as a bonding
surface for a conductive coating.
CONDUCTIVE COATING
# Acts as a conductor so that a voltage can be
applied across the liquid crystal.
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144

LIQUID CRYSTAL
# A substance which will polarize light when a
voltage is applied to it.
POLARIZED FILM
# A transparent sheet that polarizes light. The
axis of polarization is set 90 degree out of phase
with the axis of polarization of the liquid crystal.
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145
WORKING OF LCD
Light passing through the polarized

film (item 4) is polarized, When
attempts to pass through the liquid
crystal (item 3) the ray is annihilated;
thus a dark area is perceived.
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146
WORKING OF LCD
To observe how this works, take two pairs of
Polaroid sunglasses and put the lenses on top of
each other.
Next, keeping the two lenses on top of each
other, rotate the glasses with respect to each
other. You should notice the lenses appearing to
become darker.
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147
VECTOR DEVICES
The simplest image or primitive that can
be drawn on the devices discussed so far is a
point.
The simplest image or primitive that can
be drawn on a vector device such as
A memory- tube display or

A plotter is a line.
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148
VECTOR DEVICES
Vector devices require less computer
memory because only the endpoints of lines
must be stored .
A major problem occurs when the list of
endpoints becomes too long.
The vector CRT is not able to refresh the
line often enough and the display begins to
flicker.
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149
MEMORY-TUBE DISPLAYS
From the graphics programmer's point of

view, memory-tube display and plotters are quite
similar.
Both are vector devices; that is, the simplest
primitive is a line rather than a point. The
principal components of a memory-tube display
are as follow:
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150
FLOODING GUN
An electron gun designed to flood the entire
screen with electron. This charges the
collector plate.
PHOSPHORUS GRAINS
Used in a memory-tube display and similar to
those used in a standard CRT except that they
have a much longer persistence.
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151
WRITING GUN SYSTEM:- Used in a
memory-tube display and basically the same
as the electron gun used in a conventional
CRT. It consist of a series of components
(primerly a heater, a cathode a focusing
electrod, and the deflection yoke) which
together cause electrons to congregate at the
end of the gun.
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152
COLLECTOR
Already partly energized by the flooding gun,
stores the charge generated by the writing gun.
The background charge from the flooding gun
supplies enough energy so that the phosphors will
continue to phosphoresce indefinitely after they
are hit by writing gun.
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153
GROUND
Used to discharge the collector.
When the collector is discharged, the

background voltage will drop to zero and
the entire screen will be erased.
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154
COMPARISON OF DISPLAY
TECHNOLOGIES
POWER CONSUMPTION
CRT
: FAIR
ELECTRO-LUMINESENT : FAIR-GOOD
LIQUID CRYSTAL
: EXELLENT
PLASMA PANEL
: FAIR
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155
COMPARISON
SCREEN SIZE
CRT
: EXCELLENT
ELECTRO-LUMINESENT : GOOD
LIQUID CRYSTAL
: FAIR
PLASMA PANEL
: EXCELLENT
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156
COMPARISON
DEPTH
CRT
: POOR
ELECTRO-LUMINESENT : EXCELLENT
LIQUID CRYSTAL
: EXCELLENT
PLASMA PANEL
: GOOD
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157
COMPARISON
WEIGHT
CRT
: POOR
ELECTRO-LUMINESENT : EXCELLENT
LIQUID CRYSTAL
: EXCELLENT
PLASMA PANEL
: EXCELLENT
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158
COMPARISON
RUGGEDNESS
CRT
: FAIR-GOOD
ELECTRO-LUMINESENT : G-EXCELLENT
LIQUID CRYSTAL
: EXCELLENT
PLASMA PANEL
: EXCELLENT
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159
COMPARISON
BRIGHTNESS
CRT
ELECTRO-LUMINESENT EXCELLENT :
LIQUID CRYSTAL
EXCELLENT
PLASMA PANEL
: FAIR-GOOD
DTEIT 19/8/
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EXCELLENT
160
COMPARISON
ADDRESSABILITY
CRT
: EXCELLENT
LIQUID CRYSTAL
: FAIR-GOOD
PLASMA PANEL
: GOOD
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161
COMPARISON
CONTRAST
: EXCELLENT
CRT
LIQUID CRYSTAL
: FAIR
PLASMA PANEL
: GOOD
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162
COMPARISON
INTENSITY LEVEL PER DOT
: EXCELLENT
CRT
ELECTRO-LUMINESENT : FAIR
LIQUID CRYSTAL
: FAIR
PLASMA PANEL
: FAIR
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163
COMPARISON
VIEWING ANGLE
: EXCELLENT
CRT
LIQUID CRYSTAL
: POOR
PLASMA PANEL
: G-EXCELLENT
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164
COMPARISON
COLOR CAPABILITY
CRT
: EXCELLENT
LIQUID CRYSTAL
: GOOD
PLASMA PANEL
: FAIR
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165
COMPARISON
RELATIVE COST RANGE
CRT
: LOW
ELECTRO-LUMINESENT : MEDIUM-HIGH
LIQUID CRYSTAL
: LOW
PLASMA PANEL
: HIGH
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166
RASTER SCAN SYSTEM
Interactive raster graphics systems typically
employ several processing units.

In addition to the CPU, a special
purpose
processor called video-controller or display
controller , is used to control the operation the
display device.
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167
RASTER SCAN SYSTEM

The frame buffer can be any where in the
system memory & the video controller access
the frame buffer to refresh the screen.
More sophisticated raster systems employ
other processors as coprocessor and
accelerators.
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168
RASTER SCAN SYSTEM

VIDEO CONTROLLER:
C.P.U.
SYSTEM
MEMORY
FRAME
BUFFER
VIDEO
CONTROLLER
MONITOR
SYSTEM BUS
I/O DEVICES
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169
VIDEO CONTROLLER
A fixed area of the system memory is
reserved for the frame buffer, and the video
controller is given direct access to the framebuffer memory.
Locations & corresponding screen
positions are referenced in Cartesian
coordinates.
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170
VIDEO CONTROLLER
The origin of the
coordinate system for
identifying
screen
positions is usually
specified in the lower
left corner.
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171
VIDEO CONTROLLER
The screen surface is then represented as
the first quadrant of a 2-d system, with

positive x values increasing to the right &
positive y values increasing from bottom to
top.
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172
VIDEO CONTROLLER
Scan lines are then labeled from y max
At the top of the screen to 0 (zero) at the

bottom.
Along each scan line, screen pixel
positions are labeled from 0 to x max.
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173
VIDEO CONTROLLER
Two registers are used to store the
coordinates of the screen pixels.
Initially, the x register set to zero &

the y register is set to ymax.
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174
VIDEO CONTROLLER
The x register is incremented by 1 & the
process repeated for next pixel on the top

scan line.
This procedure is repeated for each pixel
along the scan line.
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175
VIDEO CONTROLLER
After the last pixel on the top scan
line has been processed, the x register

is reset to zero & the y register is
decremented by 1.
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176
VIDEO CONTROLLER
Screen must be refreshed at rate of 60
frames per second.
To speed up pixel processing, video

controller can retrieve multiple pixel values
from the refresh buffer on each pass.
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177
BASIC VIDEO CONTROLLER

REFRESH OPERATION
RASTER SCAN
GENERATOR
X
REGISTER
HORIZONTAL &
VERTICAL DEFLCTION
VOLTAGES
Y
REGISTER
MEMORY
ADDRESS
PIXEL
REGISTER
INTENSITY
FRAME BUFFER
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178
ARCHITECTURE OF A RASTER-GRAPHICS
SYSTEM WITH A DISPLAY PROCESSOR
DISPLAY
PRCESSOR
MEMORY
C.P.U.
FRAME
BUFFER
DISPLAY
PROCESSOR
VIDEO
CONTROLLER
MONITOR
SYSTEM
MEMORY
SYSTEM BUS
I/O DEVICES
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179
RASTER SCAN DISPLAY

PROCESSOR
One way to setup the organization of a
raster system containing separate display

processor, some times referred to as a
graphics
controller
or
display
coprocessor.
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180
RASTER SCAN DISPLAY PROCESSOR
The purpose of the display processor is to

free the CPU from the graphics chores.
In addition to the system memory,
separate display processor memory area
can also be provided.
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181
A CHARACTER DEFINED AS A RECTANGULAR

GRID OF PIXEL POSITIONS.
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182
A major task of the display processor is

digitizing a picture definition given in an
application program into a set of pixel-intensity
values for storage in the frame buffer.
This process is called scan conversion.
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183
Scan converting a straight line

segment, for example, means that we
have to locate the pixel positions closest
to the line path & store the intensity for
each position in the frame buffer.
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184
SIMILAR METHODS ARE USED FOR

SCAN CONVERTING CURVED LINES &
POLYGON OUTLINES.
CHARACTERS CAN BE DEFINED WITH

RECTANGULAR GRIDS OR THEY CAN BE
DEFINED WITH CURVED OUTLINES.
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185
RANDOM SCAN SYSTEMS
Graphics commands in the application
program are translated by the graphics

package into a display file stored in the
system memory.
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186
ARCHITECTURE OF A SIMPLE RANDOM

SCAN SYSTEM
C.P.U.
SYSTEM
MEMORY
DISPLAY
PROCESSOR
MONITOR
SYSTEM BUS
I/O DEVICES
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187
RANDOM SCAN SYSTEMS

This display file is then accessed by the
display processor to refresh the screen.
The display processor cycles through
each command in the display file program
once during every refresh cycle.
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188
RANDOM SCAN SYSTEMS
Some times the display processor in
a random scan system is referred to as
a display processing unit or
a graphics controller.
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189
3-D VIEWING DEVICES

Graphics monitors for the display of
3-D scenes have been devised using a
technique that reflects a CRT image
from a vibrating flexible mirror.
As the vari-focal mirror vibrates, it
changes focal length.
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190
3 - DIMENTIONAL
VIEWING DEVICES
OPERATION OF
3D - DISPLAY
SYSTEM USING
A
VIBRATING
MIRROR
THAT
CHANGES
FOCAL LENGTH
TO MATH THE
DEPTH
OF
POINTS IN A
SCENE
DTEIT 19/8/
TIMING &
CONTROL
SYSTEM
Projected
3D Image
Vibrating
Flexible Mirror
CRT
Viewer
CG-6284
191
3-D VIEWING DEVICES

These vibrations are synchronized with the
display of an object on the CRT so that each
point on the object is reflected from the mirror
into a spatial position corresponding to the
distance of that point from a specified a
viewing position.
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192
3-D VIEWING DEVICES

This allows us to walk around an object or
scene & view it from different sides.
Such systems have been used
In medical applications to analyze data from

ultrasonography & cat scan devices,
In geological
applications
to
analyze
DTEIT 19/8/
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193
3-D VIEWING DEVICES

topological & seismic data,
In design applications involving solid
objects &
In 3-d simulations of systems, such as
molecules & terrain.
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194
STEREOSCOPIC & VIRTUAL

REALITY SYSTEM.
Another technique for representing 3-D
objects on displaying stereoscopic views.
This method does not produce true 3-D
images, but it does provide a 3-D effect by
presenting a different view to each eye of
an observer so that scenes do appear to
have depth.
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195
STEREOSCOPIC & VIRTUAL REALITY SYSTEM
To obtain a stereoscopic
projection, we first need to obtain 2
views of scene generated from a
viewing direction corresponding to
each eye.
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196
We can construct the two views as

computer-generated scene with different
viewing positions.
When we simultaneous look at left view
with the eye & the right view with the right
eye, the two views merge into a single image &
we perceive scene with depth.
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197
One way to produce a stereoscopic effect

is to display eye of two views with a raster
system on alternate refresh cycle.
Stereoscopic viewing is also a component
in virtual-reality systems, where users can
step into sense & interact with the
environment.
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198
A headset containing an optical

system to generate the stereoscopic
views is commonly used in conjunction
with interactive input devices to locate
& manipulate object in the scene.
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199
A sensing system in the headset

keeps track of the viewers position, so
that the front & back of objects can be
seen as the viewer walks through &
interacts with the display.
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200
ARCHITECHTURE OF
RASTER DISPLAY
INTERFACE WITH HOST COMPUTER
(DISPLAY COMMANDS)
000000000000000000000000
000000000001000000000000
0000000001111110000000000
0000001111111111000000000
00001111111111110000000000
0011110000111110000000000
0111100001111100000000000
1111000011111000000000001
11111111111100000000000000
000000000000000
(INTERACTION DATA)
DISPLAY
CONTROLLER
MOUSE
VIDEO
CONTROLLER
MONITOR
REFRESHER BUFFER
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KEYBOARD
CG-6284
201
INPUT DEVICES
KEYBOARD
An alphanumeric keyboard on a graphic

system is used primarily as a device for
entering text strings.
Keyboard is primary input device.
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202
KEYBOARD
The keyboard is an efficient device
for inputting such non-graphic data as a
picture labels associated with a graphics
display.
It is used to type any text on the
screen.
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203
KEYBOARD
TYPES OF KEYBOARD
83-key PC and XT keyboard.
84-key AT keyboard.
101-key enhanced keyboard.
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204
KEYBOARD
SECTIONS OF KEYBOARD
Typing area.
Numeric keypad.
Cursor and screen controls.
Function keys.
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205
INPUT DEVICES
MOUSE
A mouse is hand held box used to position the

screen cursor.
Wheels or rollers on the bottom of the mouse
can be used to record the amount and
direction of movement.
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206
MOUSE
Famous as an input device.
Mostly used for pointing the pictures.
COMPONENTS
A housing to hold in hand & move
around on desktop.
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207
MOUSE
A roller ball that signals movement
to the system.
Two buttons for making selections.
A cable for connecting the mouse to
the system.
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208
INPUT DEVICES
TRACKBALL AND SPACEBALL
As the name implies, a trackball is a ball
that can be rotated with the fingers or palm

of the hand, to produce screen-cursor
movement, a spacrball provides six degrees
of freedom.
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209
INPUT DEVICES
JOYSTICK
A joystick consist of a small, vertical lever
(called the stick) mounted on a base that is
used to steer the screen cursor around.
Joystick select screen positions with actual
stick movement.
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INPUT DEVICES
DATA GLOVE
The glove is constructed with the series of

sensors that detect hand and finger motion.
Electromagnetic
coupling
between
transmitting antennas and receiving antennas is
used to provide information about the position
and orientation of the hand.
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DIGITIZERS
These devices can be used to input coordinate values in

either a two-dimensional or a three dimensional space.
TOUCH PANELS
Touch panel allow displayed objects or screen
positions to be selected with the touch of a finger.
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INPUT DEVICES
IMAGE SCANNERS
Drawing, graphs colour and black and
white photos or text can be stored for
computer processing with an image scanner
by passing an optical scanning mechanism
over the information to be stored.
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INPUT DEVICES
LIGHT PEN
Such pencil-shaped devices are used
to select screen position by detecting
the light coming from points on the
CRT screen.
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INPUT DEVICES
VOICE SYSTEM
The voice system input can be used to
initiate graphics operations or to enter data.
These systems operate by matching an
input against a predefined dictionary of
words and phrases.
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HARD - COPY DEVICES
Printers are the hard copy devices.
These are :
1. IMPACT PRINTERS
2. NON-IMPACT PRINTERS.
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PRINTERS
Most commonly used Hard copy output
device.
Capable of high-quality monochrome i.e.
Single color and multi-color print outs at very
high speed.
Can also produce graphic i.e. Images other
than plain text on the paper.
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IMPACT PRINTERS
IMPACT PRINTERS
DOT MATRIX PRINTERS,
LINE PRINTERS,
DRUM PRINTER,
CHAIN PRINTER,
DAISY WHEEL PRINTER,
PAGE PRINTER.
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IMPACT PRINTERS
Impact printers press formed character
faces against an inked ribbon on to paper
a line printer is a example of impact
device, with the type faces mounted on
bands, chains, drummer wheels.
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IMPACT PRINTERS
DOT MATRIX PRINTER
Dot matrix print head contains rectangular

array of protruding wire pins, with the
number of pins depending on the quality of
printer.
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DOT MATRIX PRINTER

Individual
characters
or
graphics
patterns are obtained by retracing

certain pins so that the remaining
forms the pattern to be printed .
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DOT MATRIX PRINTER
These are bit image impact type of
printers.
Prints the characters and images by
pattern of dots at a speed from 50 to 500

CPS.
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DOT MATRIX PRINTER

Low maintenance, low running expense,
small, lightweight, very efficient at their job
Can print all kind of papers.
Used to print graphs, charts and pictures.
Print the text character by character.
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DOT MATRIX PRINTER
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON
ITS CAPABILITIES
Extremely high volume models used
to print Electricity bills, banks etc.
High Volume models are used for
small business.
Personal model used for Office, Home
users.
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DOT MATRIX PRINTER

9 pin printers are low
cost but with very poor
print quality.
24 pin printers are the
highest
quality
Dot
Matrix Printers.
Expensive as compared
to 9 pin.
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IMPACT PRINTERS
LINE PRINTERS
Allows the entire line to be printed at a

time.
Fully formed character type impact printers.
Provide very high speed output about 15 to
30 pages per minute.
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LINE PRINTERS
Drum Printers are called Line Printers.
These are used for printing the

Electricity and Telephone bills etc.
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LINE PRINTERS
WORKING OF DRUM PRINTERS
A metal drum with all the printable
characters on its periphery is used.
As the drum rotates different letters of the
line gets printed and in one rotation of the
drum all the letter of the line gets printed.
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LINE PRINTERS
First all the letter A in the line will
get printed, next all B, then all the
C and so on until all the letters of the
line is printed.
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PRINTERS
NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
LASER,
INKJET SPRAY,
XEORX PROCESSOR MACHINES,
ELECTROSTATIC,
ELECTEOTHERMAL PRINTERS.
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NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
Non impact printers use laser
techniques,inkjet sprays ,xerographic
processes (as used in photocopying
machines), electrostatic methods and
electro-thermal methods to get images
onto paper.
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NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
LASER PRINTER
In laser printer, laser beam creates a charge

distribution on a rotating drum coated with
photoelectric materials, such as selenium.
Toner is applied to the drum and transfer
paper.
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LASER PRINTERS
A high end printer produces clear and
sharp images.
Provides very fast output up to

16PPM without producing any noise.
Outputs are used for Offset Printing,
Screen Printing and other type printings.
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LASER PRINTERS
Laser Printer can produce 300 to 1800 DPI
resolution.
A cylindrical photo-sensitive drum inside the
Printer is given an even electrostatic charge .
A Laser beam-focused to a tiny spot-scans
across the cylindrical drum from left to right.
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LASER PRINTERS
The area exposed by the LASER beam,
attract a black colored toner to the drum.
Black colored is transferred to the paper
to form the image.
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LASER PRINTERS
The scanning of the drums

surface is usually done by
bouncing the Laser beam off a
multi-sided mirror which rotates
rapidly.
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236
Printing Process of Laser
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237
NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
INK-JET PRINTER
Ink jet printers produce output by squirting ink

in horizontal rows across roll of paper wrapped
on a drum.
The electrically charged ink stream is deflected
by an electric field to produce dot matrix
patterns.
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NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
ELECTROSTATIC PRINTERS
An electrostatic device places a

negative charge on paper, one complete
row at a time along the length of paper.
Then the paper is exposed to toner.
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239
NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
The toner is positively charged and
so is attracted to negatively charged
areas , where it adheres to produce
the specified output.
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240
PLOTTERS
An output device used to get
hardcopy of information.
Used to produce output such as
drawing in
Architectural and
Engineering applications.
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241
PLOTTERS
It draws image by using a pen on the
paper surface.
More useful when user requires

graphical outputs.
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PLOTTERS
PLOTTER SIZE
Size of the plotter is fixed according
to maximum size of the paper used.
Actual plotter size may be little

bigger than the paper size used.
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PLOTTERS
TYPES OF PLOTTERS
Single and multiple pen plotters.
Flatbed and drum plotters.
Thermal/laser/pencil plotters.
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PLOTTERS
FLATBED PLOTTER
PEN An actual pen that draws on the plotted paper.
WRITE-MOVE MECHANISM Used to lift and

lower the pen.
X DRIVER MOTOR Moves the pen horizontally

across the paper.
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PLOTTERS
PEN CARTRIDGE
Holds several
different- colored pens . A plotter capable
of multicolor output usually has a
program in read- only memory(ROM) that
instructs the plotter to pickup a new pen
when the programmer requests a color
change.
Y DRIVER MOTOR Moves the pen
vertically across the paper.
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PLOTTERS
DRUM PLOTTER
PEN An actual pen that draws on the plotted paper.
WRITE-MOVE MECHANISM Used to lift and
lower the pen.

Y DRIVER MOTOR Rotates the drum forward and
backward.
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PLOTTERS
PEN CARTRIDGE Holds several different-
colored pens.
# A plotter capable of multicolor
output
usually
has
a program in read- only
memory(ROM) that instructs the plotter to
pickup a new pen when the programmer
requests a color change.
X DRIVER MOTOR
Moves the pen
horizontally across the paper.
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GRAPHICS SOFTWARE
A
general graphics programming

package provides an extensive set of
graphics functions that can be used in a
high level programming language, such as
c or
Fortran GL (graphic library)
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GRAPHICS SOFTWARE
application graphics packages are
designed for non programmers, so that
users can generate display without
worrying about how graphics operation
work.
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GRAPHICS SOFTWARE
ATTRIBUTES
Attributes rare the properties of the output

primitives.
That is an attribute describes how a particular

primitive is to be displayed when changes the size,
position, or orientation of an object within a scene
using geometric transformations.
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GRAPHICS SOFTWARE
Geometric transformations are used to
specify the view that is to be presented
and the portion of the output display area
that is to be used.
Pictures can be subdivided into parts,
called structures or segments or objects,
depending on the software package in use.
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COORDINATE SYSTEM
MODELING
TRANSFORMATIONS
PLOTTER
NORMALIZED
COORDINATES
WORLD
COORDINATES
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OTHEROUTPUT
OUTPUT
DEVICE
COORDINATES
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253
COORDINATE REPRESENTATION
We can construct the shape of individual objects
,such as trees or furniture, in a scene within
separate coordinate reference frames called
Modeling coordinates or
Local coordinates.
or
Master coordinates.
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Individual object shapes have been
specified, we can place the objects into

appropriate positions within the scene
using a reference frame called worldcoordinates.
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The world-coordinates description of
the
scene is to one or more output-device reference
frames for display.
These display coordinate system are referred to
as
Device coordinates or
Screen coordinates.
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256
A graphic system first converts worldcoordinate positions to normalized device
coordinates, in the range from 0 to 1,
before final conversion to specific device
coordinates.
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257
An initial modeling-coordinate position (x mc,
ymc) Is transferred to a device coordinate
position (xdc, ydc) With the sequence:
(xmc, ymc)->(xwc, ywc)-> (xnc, ync)-> (xdc, ydc)
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The modeling & world-coordinate

positions in this transformation can be any
floating point values :
0<=xnc<=1,
0<=ync<=1,
& The device coordinates are xdc & ydc.
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259
The basic building blocks for

picture are referred to as output
primitives.
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260
We carry out the viewing transformation in
several steps --First, we construct the scene in world
coordinates using the output primitives an
attributes.
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261
Once the viewing reference frame is established ,
we can transform description in world
coordinates to viewing coordinates .We then
define a view port in normalized coordinates .
The final step ,all parts of the picture that lie
outside view port are clipped and the contents of
view port are transferred to device coordinates.
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Next, to obtain a particular orientation for
the window ,we can set up a two
dimensional viewing coordinate system in
the world coordinate plane and define a
window in viewing coordinate system.
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263
SOFTWARE STANDARDS
The primary goal of standardized graphics
software is portability.
When packages are designed with standard
graphics functions, software can be moved
easily from one hardware system to another
and used in different implementations and
applications.
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SOFTWARE STANDARDS
For
object
modeling
,
color
specifications, surface rendering and picture
manipulations are developed in PHIGS.
A three dimensional GKS extension was

subsequently developed.
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SOFTWARE STANDARDS
This work on standards led to the
development of the graphical kernel system

(GKS).
This system was adopted as the first
graphics
software standard by the
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SOFTWARE STANDARDS
International Standards organization

(ISO) and by various national standards
organizations including the American
national standards institute (ANSI).
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267
SOFTWARE STANDARDS
Although GKS was originally

designed as a two dimensional graphics
package. A three dimensional GKS
extension was subsequently developed.
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268
SOFTWARE STANDARDS
The second software standard to be
developed and approved by the standards

organizations was PHIGS (Programmers
Hierarchical
Interactive
Graphics
Standard) which is an extension of gks.
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SOFTWARE STANDARDS
Increased capabilities for object

modeling , color specifications, surface
rendering and picture manipulations
are developed in PHIGS.
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SOFTWARE STANDARDS
Standardization
for device
interface methods is given in the
computer graphics interface (CGI)
system.
And the computer graphics metafile
(CGM) system specifies
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SOFTWARE STANDARDS
Standards for archiving

transporting pictures.
and
Functions
in
graphics
programming packages can be
divided into the following categories:
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272
SOFTWARE STANDARDS
Output primitives,
Attributes,
Geometric,
Modeling transformations,
Viewing transformations,
Structure operations,
Input functions and
Control operations.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM:- Define analog device, and give
some examples of analog devices.
SOLUTION:- An analog device is a
continuous mechanism that represents
information with continuous physical
variations.
For
Example,
mercury
thermometer and record players are all
analog devices.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM :- Define digital device ,and give
some examples of digital devices.
SOLUTION:- A digital device is a discrete
mechanism which represents all values with a
specific number system. For example, digital
watches and computer all process discrete
information and use the binary number system.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM :-Explain what accuracy means as
related to input devices.
SOLUTION:- Accuracy refers to the

correctness of the data generated by the input
device. For example, if the true temperature
were 72.0031 degrees, and accurate digital
thermometer precise to one degree would read
72 degrees.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
Problem :- What are the major
components of a memory-tube crt ?
Solution :- The major components of
memory-tube CRT are the right gun,
the flooding gun, the collector, the
phosphorous-coated screen, and the
collector ground.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM :-Why is high precision misleading
when combined with low accuracy ?
SOLUTION:- People tend to believe highprecision readings. Assume that we have a
digital thermometer with eight-place precision
that consistently gives readings 9 degrees
higher than the actual temperature.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM:-
What is processor addressing
capacity?
Processor addressing
capacity relates the maximum number
of bytes to which a processor has
access,as determined by the number of
address lines (address width ) the
processor has.
SOLUTION
DTEIT 19/8/
:-
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279
It is precise but inaccurate. The user,

however, would be inclined to believe the
reading because of its precision.
for example, assume that the true
temperature is 75.089341 degrees but our
thermometer(which is off by exactly 9
degree) reads 84.089341 degrees. Many
people would be inclined to believe that
the thermometer was correct.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM :- What steps are required to record the
display location where a user is pointing to with a

light pen ?
SOLUTION:- We define the following variables L
and A where :
L=1 if electron beam is striking phosphors at the
light pens location :
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281
A=address of byte being displayed

when electron beam passes light pen :
If L=1, then store A
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM :- Why would not a light pen work

with a liquid crystal display ( LCD) ?
SOLUTION:- An LCD does not need to be
refreshed. Since the display is not changed on a
regular basis, there is nothing for the light pen to
record. Further more , LCDs do not emit a brighter
than usual (or darker than usual) burst the moment a
pixel is turned on , so there is no way to distinguish
which pixel is being turned on and which pixel is
already turned on.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM :- How does a magnetic tablet
system locate the coordinates of the stylus ?
SOLUTION:- The stylus used in a magnetic
tablet system is small radio transmitter. The
tablet is composed of an array of radio
receiver. By measuring the relative strength
of the radio signals at each of the receivers,
you can compute the location of the stylus.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM:- What are some of the disadvantages of
developing a specialize keyboard with commands
printed on the function key ?
SOLUTION :-Printing commands on the function
keys limit flexibility, since any future software
change will require a change of keyboards.
Experience has shown that in most cases a removable
template placed over function keys is just as effective
but less limiting to future development.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM:- Why do computer

graphics systems often use more
than one processor ?
SOLUTION :- Computer graphics
systems often require more than
one
processor
because
the
calculations required for graphics
can overload the main processor
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM:- What is display memory

called in a system which has portions
of memory reserved for graphics use
only ?
SOLUTION :- A special area of

memory dedicated to graphics only is
called the frame buffer
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM:-
What is processor addressing
capacity?
Processor addressing
capacity relates the maximum number
of bytes to which a processor has
access,as determined by the number of
address lines (address width ) the
processor has.
SOLUTION
DTEIT 19/8/
:-
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288
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
Problem :- What is the function of the control

electrode in a CRT?
Solution:- The control electrode is used to
turn the electron beam on and off.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
Problem :- What is the function of the

electron gun in a CRT ?
Solution:- The electron gun creates a
source of electrons which are focused
into a narrow beam directed at the face
of the CRT.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
Problem :- What cases the electron beam
to move across the screen in regular
pattern in a raster scan CRT ?
Solution:- The deflection yoke which is
connected to the sweep generator creates a
fluctuating
electric
or
magnetic
potential.The change in potential causes
the electron to be deflected.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
Problem :- What is persistence ?
Solution :- Persistence is the term

used to describe the duration of
phosphorescence
exhibited
by
phosphor.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
Problem :- What are some of the more
popular alternatives to the raster scan

CRT ?
Solution :- Plasma displays , LCD ,
memory-tube displays, and randomaccess CRT.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
Problem
:-
WHAT
COMPONENTS
ARE
OF
THE
THE
MAJOR
PLASMA
DISPLAY ?
SOLUTION:- THE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF
A PLASMA DISPLAY ARE THE CATHODES,
ANODES,
GAS
CELLS,
AND
GLASS
PLATES .
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
Problem :- WHAT ARE THE MAJOR
COMPONENTS OF AN LCD ?
SOLUTION :- THE MAJOR COMPONENTS
OF AN LCD ARE THE CODUCTIVE
COATING, THE TRANSPARENT PLATE,
THE LIQUID CRYSTAL AND THE
POLARIZED FILM.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
components of a memory-tube crt ?
Solution :- The major components of
memory-tube CRT are the right gun,
the flooding gun, the collector, the
phosphorous-coated screen, and the
collector ground.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
Problem :- What are the differences
between raster-scan CRT and randomaccess or vector CRT ?
Solution:- Random-access CRT do not
follow
a
regular
scanning
pattern.Instead, the electron beam is
directed from one point to another in
the order in which the points were
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297
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
Originally plotted.This method allows
the random-access CRT to present
much better animation than a rasterscan CRT. Memory requirements are
also reduced because a coordinate list
is stored rather than memory map.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
Problem :- What is the major
with random-access CRT
problem
application?
Solution:- When the coordinate data list

becomes too long, the display will began to
flicker.
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299
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
Problem :- What type of display

device are plotters similar to ?
Solution:- Memory tube.
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300
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
Problem :- WHAT ARE THE MAJOR
COMPONENTS OF AN LCD ?
SOLUTION :- THE MAJOR COMPONENTS
OF AN LCD ARE THE CODUCTIVE
COATING, THE TRANSPARENT PLATE,
THE LIQUID CRYSTAL AND THE
POLARIZED FILM.
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301
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS`

components of flatbed plotter?
Solution :- the pen, the write -move
device ,and the x and y driver
motors.
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302
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
Problem :- What is the major
difference between a flatbed plotter
and a drum plotter ?
Solution :- The drum plotter moves the
paper to change the y axis. The flatbed
plotter moves the pen.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
There are four steps involve
converting Cartesian coordinates into
a form the computer can understand
these four steps are:
Locate the starting address

corresponding to the line on which the
point is to appear.
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304

Locate the address of the byte in which
the point will be represented.
Locate the bit which will represent the
correct pixel.
Logically OR the calculated value with
the present value of the byte.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM:- What is the function of
the control electrode in a CRT ?

SOLUTION:- The control electrode is
used to turn the electron beam on and
off.
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306
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM:- What is the function of

electron gun in CRT ?
SOLUTION:- The electron gun
creates a source of electrons which are
focused into a narrow beam directed at
the face of CRT.
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307
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM :- What causes the electron beam the
move across the screen in a regular pattern in a
raster-scan CRT ?
SOLUTION :- The deflection yoke which is
connected to the sweep generator creates a
fluctuating electric or magnetic potential. The
change in potential causes the electron beam to be
deflected.
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308
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM:- What is persistence ?

SOLUTION :- Persistence is the term
used to describe the duration
phosphorescence
exhibited
of
by
phosphor.
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309
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM:- What are some of the more

popular alternative to the raster-scan CRT ?
SOLUTION :- Plasma display, LCDs,
memory-tube display, and random-access
CRTs.
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310
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM:-
What
are
the
major
components of plasma display?

solution:-The major components of a
plasma display are the cathodes, anodes,gas
cells,and glass plates.
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311
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM:- What are
components of an LCD ?
the
major
SOLUTION:-The major components of an

LCD are the conductive coating, the
transparent plate,the liquid crystal,and the
polarized film.
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PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM:- What are the major
components of a memory-tube CRT ?
SOLUTION:- The major components
of a memory-tube CRT are the write
gun, the flooding gun , the collector, the
phosphorus-coated screen , and the
collector ground.
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313
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM:- What are the differences
between raster-scan CRTs and random-access
or vector CRTs ?
SOLUTION:- Random-access CRTs do not
follow a regular scanning pattern. Instead, the
electron beam is directed from one point to
another in order in which the points originally
plotted.
DTEIT 19/8/
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314
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM:- What is a major problem with
random-access CRT application ?
SOLUTION:- When the coordinate data list
becomes too long , the display will begin to
flicker.
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315
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM:- What types of display device

are plotters similar to ?
SOLUTION :- Memory- tube.
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316
PROBLEM
:-
What
are
the
major
components of a flatbed plotter ?

SOLUTION :- The pen, the write-move
device, and x and y driver motor.
DTEIT 19/8/
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317
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS
PROBLEM :-What is the major difference

between a flatbed plotter and drum plotter ?
SOLUTION :- The drum plotter moves the
paper to change the y axis and The flatbed
plotter moves the pen.
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318
EXERCISE
List
the
disadvantages
relative
of
advantages
the
major
and
display
technologies for video monitors : vector

refresh systems ,raster refresh systems,DVST
systems and plasma panels.
DTEIT 19/8/
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319
EXERCISE
Consider a raster system with resolution of

1024 by 1024.What is the size of the raster
(in bytes) needed to store 4 bits per pixel?
How much storage is required if 8 bits per
pixel are to be stored.
DTEIT 19/8/
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320
EXERCISE
Determine the resolution (pixel per

centimeter) in the x and y directions for the
video monitor in use on your system.
Calculate the aspect ratio for this monitor,
and explain how relative proportions of
objects can be maintained on the system.
DTEIT 19/8/
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321
EXERCISE
Compare
the
functions
performed
by
display processors in random-scan and in

vector-scan systems.How is the erasure of a
selected section of a screen accomplished in
each of these systems?
DTEIT 19/8/
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322
EXERCISE
Discuss the function and working of

various input devices.
Write note on working of output
devices using for graphics applications.
DTEIT 19/8/
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323
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324
OUTPUT PRIMITIVES
POINT PLOTTING,
LINE DRAWING ALGORITHMS#
DDA ALGORITHMS,
#
BRESENHAMS LINE ALGORITHMS,
CIRCLE GENERATING ALGORITHMS,
ELLIPSES,
ATTRIBUTES AND
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES.
DTEIT 19/8/
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325
OUTPUT PRIMITIVES
POINTS AND LINES,
LINE-DRAWING ALGORITHMS,
a. DDA-ALGORITHAM,
b. BRESENHAMS LINEALGORITHAM,
CIRCLE GENERATING ALGORITHAM,
MIDPOINT CIRCLE ALGORITHAM,
ELLIPSE GENERATING ALGORITHAMS,
MIDPOINT ELLIPSE ALGORITHAM.
DTEIT 19/8/
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326
POINTS & LINES

POINTS AND LINES
Point
plotting is accomplished by
converting a single coordinate position
furnished by an application program into
appropriate operation for the output device
in use.
y
point
DTEIT 19/8/
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327
POINTS & LINES

A random-scan (vector) system stores pointplotting instructions in the display list ,
Coordinate values in these instructions are
converted to deflection voltages that position
the electron beam at the screen locations to be
plotted during each refresh cycle.
DTEIT 19/8/
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328
POINTS & LINES

For a black and white raster system,
on the other hand , a point is plotted by
setting the bit value corresponding to a
specified screen position within the
frame buffer to 1.
DTEIT 19/8/
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329
POINTS & LINES
Line
drawing is accomplished by calculating

intermediate positions along the line path between
two specified end-point positions.
y
line
endpoints
x
DTEIT 19/8/
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330
POINTS & LINES
An output device is then directed to fill in
these positions between the endpoints.
For analog devices , such as a vector pen
plotter or a random-scan display, a straight line

can be drawn smoothly from one endpoint to the
other.
DTEIT 19/8/
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331
LINE
Digital devices display a straight line

segment by plotting discrete points between
the two endpoints.
A computed line position of (10.48,20.51),
for example , would be converted to pixel
position (10,21).this rounding of coordinate
values to integers causes lines to be displayed
with a stairstep appearance (the jaggies)
DTEIT 19/8/
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332
STAIRSTEP EFFECT (JAGGIES) PRODUCED

WHEN A LINE IS GENERATED AS A SERIES
OF PIXEL POSITIONS.
DTEIT 19/8/
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333
LINE
The characteristics stairstep shape of

raster lines is particularly noticeable on systems
with low resolution.
We can improve their appearance somewhat

by displaying them on high resolution systems.
More effective techniques for smoothing

raster lines are based
on adjusting pixel
intensities along the line paths.
DTEIT 19/8/
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334
LINE
We will assume that pixel positions are of
referenced according scan line number and
column number ( pixel position across a scan
line ).
This addressing scheme is illustrated in

figure.Scan lines are numbered consecutively
from 0, starting at the bottom of the screen;
and pixel columns are numbered from 0, left
to right across each scan line.
DTEIT 19/8/
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335
POINTS AND LINES

To load an intensity value into the
frame buffer at a position corresponding
to column x along scan line y, we will
assume we have available a low-level
procedure of the form :
setpixel (x, y, intensity)

DTEIT 19/8/
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336
SCAN LINE NUMBER
5
4
3
2
1
0
PIXEL COLUMN
NUMBER
PIXEL POSITION REFERENCED BY SCANLINE NUMBER AND COLUMN NUMBER.

DTEIT 19/8/
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337
POINTS AND LINES
Pixel position referenced by scan-
line number and column number.
We sometimes will also want to be
retrieve
intensity
the
current
setting
for
frame-buffer
a
specified
location.
DTEIT 19/8/
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338
LINE-DRAWING ALGORITHMS
Line-drawing algorithms are the cartesian
slope-intercept equation for a straight line is
y = m.x+b
-----(1)
with m representing the slope of the line
and
b as the y intercept.
Given that the two endpoints of a line
segment are specified at position (x1, y1)
and (x2, y2).
DTEIT 19/8/
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339
We can determine values for

the slope m and y intercept b
with the following calculations
:
y2
y1
m=(y2 - y1) / (y2 - y1) --(2)

b = y1 - m.x1 ----(3)
Algorithms for displaying

straight lines lines are
based on the line and the
calculation
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
x1
x2
Line path between

endpoints (x1,y1)
and (x2,y2)
340
For any given x interval along a line ,we can
compute the corresponding y interval
from :
y=m. x -----(4)
Similarly, we can obtain the x interval x
corresponding to a specified y as
x =y/m -----(5)
These equations form the basis for determining
deflection voltages in analog device.
DTEIT 19/8/
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341

For lines whose slopes have
magnitude
|m|<1 , x can be set
proportional to a small horizontal
deflection
voltage
and
the
corresponding vertical deflection is
then set proportional to y.
For lines whose slopes have
magnitudes |m| > 1 , y can be set
proportional to a small vertical
deflection voltage set proportional to
x.
DTEIT 19/8/
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342
Y2
Y1
X1
X2
STRAIGHT LINE SEGMENT WITH FIVE SAMPLING

POSITIONS ALONG THE X AXIS BETWEEN X1 & X2.
DTEIT 19/8/
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343
DDA - ALGORITHM
The digital differential analyzer (dda) is
a scan-concersion line algorithm
based
on calculating either y or x using
equation
y=m x
x= y/m
DTEIT 19/8/
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344
DDA - ALGORITHM
We sample the line at unit intervals in

one coordinate and determine corresponding
integer values nearest the line path for the
other coordinate.
If the slope is less than or equal to 1, we
sample at unit x intervals(x=1) and
compute each successive y value as
Yk+1=yk+m -----(6)
DTEIT 19/8/
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345
DDA - ALGORITHM
Subscript k takes integer value starting
from 1,for the first point and increases by
one until the final endpoint is reached.
Since m can be any real number between 0
& 1, the calculated y values must be
rounded to the nearest integer.
DTEIT 19/8/
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346
DDA - ALGORITHM
For lines with a positive slope greater

than one, we reserve the roles of x and
y. That is we sample at unit y
intervals(dy=1) and calculate each
succeeding x value as:
Xk+1=xk+1/m ------(7)
Equation 6 and 7 are based on the
assumption that the lines are to be
processed from the left endpoint to the
right endpoint.
DTEIT 19/8/
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347
DDA - ALGORITHM
If this processing is reversed , so that the
starting point is at right, then either we have dx
= -1and
Yk+1=yk-m -----(8)
Xk+1=xk-1/m -----(9)
These two equations can be used to calculate
pixel positions along a line with negative slope.
DTEIT 19/8/
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348
DDA - ALGORITHM
If the absolute value of slope is less than one
and the start endpoint is at left, we set x=1
and calculate y values.
When the start endpoint is at right we set x=
-1 and obtain y positions.
When the absolute value of a negative slope is
greater than one we use y=-1.
DTEIT 19/8/
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349
DDA - ALGORITHM
Procedure line DDA.(Xa,ya,xb,yb : integer
var
dx, dy, steps, k : integer;
xinctrment, yincrement, x, y: real;
begin
dx := xb - xa ; dy := yb - ya;
if abs(dx)>abs(dy) then steps :=abs(dx)
DTEIT 19/8/
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);
350
DDA - ALGORITHM
Else steps :=abs(dy);

xincrement : = dx / steps;
Yincrements := dy / steps;
x := xa;
Y :=ya;
setpixel (round(x), round(y), 1);
For k :=1 to steps do
Begin
x := x + x increment; y:=y increment;
Set pixel (round (x), round (y) , 1)
end
end; ( line DDA)
DTEIT 19/8/
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351
ABOUT DDA ALGORITHM

The dda algorithm is faster method for
calculating pixel positions.
It eliminates the multiplication by making use of
raster characteristics .
The accumulation of round off error in successive
addition of the floating point increment can cause
the calculated pixel positions to drift away from
the true line path for long line segments.
DTEIT 19/8/
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352
The rounding operations and floating point

arithmetic in procedure line dda are still
time consuming.
We can improve the performance of dda
algorithm
By separating the increments m and 1/m
into integer and fractional parts so that all
calculations are reduced to integer
operations.
DTEIT 19/8/
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353
BRESENHAMS LINE ALGORITHM

An accurate and efficient raster line generating
algorithm scan converts lines using only
incremental integer calculations that can be
adapted to display circles and other curves.
Bresenhams line algorithm by testing the sign of
an integer parameter, whose value is proportional
to the difference between the separations of the
two pixel positions from the actual line of path.
DTEIT 19/8/
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354

To illustrate Bresenhams approach, we
first consider the scan conversion process
for lines with positive slope less than one.
Pixel position along a line path and than
determined by sampling at unit x intervals.
DTEIT 19/8/
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355
Starting from the left end point (x0,y0)
of a given line we step to each successive

column(x position) and
Plot the pixel whose scan line y value is
closest to the line path.
DTEIT 19/8/
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356

Assuming we have determined that the
pixel at (xk,yk) is to be displayed,
we next need to decide which pixel to
plot in the column xk+1.
our choices are the pixels at positions

(xk+1,yk) and (xk+1,yk+1).
DTEIT 19/8/
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357
BRESENHAMS LINE ALGORITHAM

At sampling position
Y k+1
xk+1, we label vertical pixel
d1
yk
separations from the path as

d1 and d2.
d2
x k+1
DISTANCES
BETWEEN
PIXEL POSITIONS AND
THE LINE y COORDINATE
AT SAMPLING POSITION
xk+1
DTEIT 19/8/
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358

The y coordinate on the mathematical line at pixel
column position xk+1, is calculated as

Y=m(xk+1)+b
then
d1= y-yk = m(xk+1)+b - yk
and d2= (yk+1)-y = (yk +1) - m(xk+1)-b
The difference between these two separations is

d1-d2=2m(xk+1) -2 yk +2b - 1
DTEIT 19/8/
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359

m=Ay/Ax,
Where ay and ax are the ertical and
horizontal separations of the end point positions pk=ax(d1-d2)
= 2ay.Xk-2ax.Yk+c
The sign of pk is the same as the sign of
d1-d2 , since x>0 for our example. Parameter c is
constant and the value 2dy+ x(2b-1), which is
independent pixel at Yk is closer to the line path
than the pixel at Yk+1,
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
360

then decision parameter pk is negative . In that
case, we plot the lower pixel; otherwise we
plot the upper pixel.
So,
Pk+1=2ay.Xk+1 - 2ax.Yk+1 + c
pk+1=pk + 2ay - 2ax(yk+1 - yk)

at the starting pixel position (x0,y0) and
with m evaluated as ay/ax :
p0=2ay-ax
DTEIT 19/8/
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361

1. Input
the two line endpoints and store the left

endpoint in (x0,y0)
2. Load (x0,y0) into the frame buffer,that is ,plot

the first point.
3.Calculate constants x , y , 2y and 2y-2x and
obtain the starting value for the decision
parameters p0 = 2y-x
DTEIT 19/8/
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362

4.
At each Xk along the line,starting at k = 0,

perform the following test: If Pk<0.the next
point to plot is(Xk + 1,Yk)and Pk + 1 = Pk +
2y otherwise the next point to plot is (Xk +
1, YK + 1)and pk + 1 = Pk + 2y - 2x
5. Repeat step 4 x times.
DTEIT 19/8/
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363
LOADING THE FRAME BUFFER
The straight line segments and other
objects are scan converted for display with

a raster system, frame-buffer positions must
be calculated.
Scan conversion algorithms generate pixel
positions at successive unit intervals.
DTEIT 19/8/
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364

As a specific example, suppose the frame
buffer array is addressed in rowmajor order and

that pixel positions vary from (0,0) at the lower
left screen corner to (xmax, ymax) at the top right
corner.
DTEIT 19/8/
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365

For a bilevel system ( 1 bit per pixel), the
frame-buffer
bit address for pixel
position(x,y) is calculated as :
addr(x,y)=addr(0,0)+y(xmax+1)+x
Moving across a scan line, we can calculate
the frame-buffer address for the pixel at
DTEIT 19/8/
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366

Stepping diagonally up to the next scan
line from(x,y), we get (x+1,y) as the
following offset from the address for
position (x,y) :
addr(x+1,y)=addr(x,y)+1
DTEIT 19/8/
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367

To the frame-buffer address of (x+1,y+1)
with the calculation :
addr(x+1,y+1)=addr
(x,y)+xmax+2
Where the constant xmax+2 is
precomputed once for all line segments.
DTEIT 19/8/
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368

Similar incremental calculation can be
obtained.
For unit steps in the negative x and y
screen directions.Each of these address
calculation involves only a single integer
addition.
DTEIT 19/8/
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369
GENERATING
ALGORITHAM CIRCLE
PROPERTIES OF CIRCLE : A circle is defined as the set

of points that are all at a given distance r from a
center.Position(xc,yc) this distance relationship is expressed by
the pythagorean theorem in cartesian coordinates
(x - xc)^2 +
(y-yc)^2 = r^2.We could use this equation to calculate the

position of points on a circle circumference by stepping along
the x axis in unit steps from xc - r to xc + r and calculating the
corresponding y values at each position .
DTEIT 19/8/
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370
MIDPOINT ALGORITHM
To apply the midpoint method
we define the circle function .
yk
yk-1
X 2+ y2 - r2 = 0
Midpoint
xk
fcircle(x,y) = x^2 + y^2 - r^2

fcircle(x, y) <0, if (x,y) is inside
the circle boundary.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
yk+1
yk+2
MIDPOINT
BETBEEN
CANDIDATE PIXELS AT
SAMPLING POSITION
xk+1
ALONG
A
CIRCULAR PATH
371
MIDPOINT CIRCLE
ALGORITHAM
1. Input radius r and circle center (xc, yc) and obtain
the first point on the circumference of a circle
centered on the origin as
(x0,y0) = (0,r)
2.
Calculate the initial value of the

parameter as
decision
p0=5/4 - r
DTEIT 19/8/
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372
MIiDPOINT CIRCLE ALGORITHAM

3. At each xk position,starting at k=0 perform the following test:if
pk>0,the next point along the circle centered on (0,0)is (x k +1,yk) and
pk +1 = pk + 2xk+1 +1
Otherwise the next point along the circle is
(Xk +1, yk - 1) and
P k+1 = pk + 2xk+1 -2yk+1
DTEIT 19/8/
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373
MIiDPOINT CIRCLE ALGORITHAM

4. Determine symmetry points in the other seven
octants.
5. Move each calculated pixel position (x, y)
onto the circular path centered on (xc, yc)and
plot the coordinate values:
x=x+xc, y=y+yc
6. Repeat step 3 through 5 until x>=y
DTEIT 19/8/
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374
ELLIPSE-GENERATING ALGORITHMS
PROPERTIES OF ELLIPSES :
An ellipse is defined as the set of points such that the sum
of the distances from two fixed positions (foci) is the same for
all points. If the distances to the two foci from any point p=(x,
y) on the ellipse are labeled d1 and d2, then the general
equation of an ellipse can be stated as
d1+d2=constant
DTEIT 19/8/
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375
expressing distances d1 and d2 in terms of the focal coordinates
f1=(x1,y1)andf2=(x1,y2),we have
((X-x2)^2+(y-y1)^2 + (x-x2)^2+(y-y2)^2)^1/2= constant. The
general ellipse equation in the form
X^2+by^2+cxy+dx+ey+f=0
Expressing distances d1 and d2 in terms of the focal coordinates
f1=(x1,y1) and f2=(x1,y2),
DTEIT 19/8/
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376
we have
y
F1
d1
F2 d2
p=(x,y)
ELLIPSE GENERATED
ABOUT FOCI F1 AND F2
((x-x2)^2+(y-y1)^2 + (x-x2)^2+(y-y2)^2)^1/2= CONSTANT
DTEIT 19/8/
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377
Symmetry of an ellipse.
(-x,y)
ry (x,y)
(x,y)
rx
(-x,-y)
Calculation of a point
(x,-y)
in
one
quadrant
yields the ellipse points

shown for the other three
quadrants.
DTEIT 19/8/
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378
The equation of the ellipse can be written in terms of the

ellipse center coordinates and parameters rx and ry as
(x-xc) / rx)^2 + (y-yc / ry)^2 = 1
using polar coordinates r and theta. We can also describe
the ellipse in standard position with parametric_equations:
x = xc+rxcos(theta) ;
y = yc +rysin(theta)
DTEIT 19/8/
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379
ry
rx
yc
xc
We define an ellipse function with (xc,yc)=(0,0) as
fellipse(x,y)= ry^2.X^2 + rx^2.Y^2 - rx^2.Ry^2
DTEIT 19/8/
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380
Which has the following properties:
Fellipse(x,y) {<0, if(x,y)is inside the
ellipse boundary
{=0 if (x,y)is on the

ellipse boundary
{>0 if (x,y)is outside
ellipse boundary
DTEIT 19/8/
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381
Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm

1. Input rx,ry,and ellipse center (xc,yc), and obtain the first point on
an ellipse centered on the origin as
(X0,y0)=(0,ry)
2. Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter in region 1 as
P10=ry^2-rx^2ry+1/4rx^2
DTEIT 19/8/
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382
Ellipse
Algorithm
3. AtMidpoint
each xk position
in region
1, starting at k=0,
perform the following test: if p1k<0, the next point
along the ellipse centered on (0,0) is (xk+1, yk) and
P1k+1=p1k+2ry^2xk+1+ry^2
Otherwise,next point along the circle is (xk+1,yk-1)
and p1k+1=p1k + 2ry^2xk+1 -2rx^2yk+1 + ry^2
DTEIT 19/8/
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383

with
2ry^2xk+1= 2ry^2xk + 2ry^2 ,
2rx^2yk+1 = 2rx^2yk - 2rx^2
4. Calculate the initial value of the decision parameter in region

2 using the last point (x0,y0) calculated in region 1 as
P20=ry^2(x0+1/2)^2 + rx^2(y0-1)^2-rx^2ry^2
DTEIT 19/8/
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384

ry^2x^2+rx^2y^2-rx^2ry^2=0
yk
midpoint
yk+1
xk
xk+1
5. At each yk position in region 2,starting at k=0,

perform the following test : if p2k>0, the next
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
385

Point along the ellipse centered on (0,0)is (xk,yk-1) and
p2k+1=p2k - 2r^2xyk+1 + r^2x
Otherwise, the next point along the circle is
&
(xk+1,yk-1)
p2k+1= p2k+ 2r^2yxk+1 - 2r^2xyk+1 + r^2x

Using the same incremental calculations for x and y as in
region
DTEIT 19/8/
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386

6.
Determine symmetry points in the other three

quadrants.
7. Move each calculated pixel position(x,y) onto the

elliptical path centered on(xc,yc) and plot the
coordinate values:
X = x +xc,
y = y+yc
8. Repeat the steps for region 1 until 2ry^2x >=

2rx^2y.
DTEIT 19/8/
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387
MIDPOINT ELLIPSE DRAWING

Given input parameters rx=8 & ry=6.Initial
values & increments for the decision parameter
calculations are :
2ry2x=0 (with increment 2ry2=72)
2rx2y=0
(with increment 2rx2=-128)
DTEIT 19/8/
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388

For region 1: the initial point for the ellipse
centered on the origin is (x0,y0)=(0, 6) &
the initial decision parameter value is
P10 = ry2 - rx2 ry + 1/4 rx2 = -332
DTEIT 19/8/
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389
Successive decision parameter values &
Positions along the ellipse path are calculated
using the midpoint method as :
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
390
p1k
(xk+1, yk+1)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
-332
-224
-44
208
-108
288
244
(1,6)
(2,6)
(3,6)
(4,5)
(5,5)
(6,4)
(7,3)
DTEIT 19/8/
2ry2 xk+1
2rx2 yk+1
72
144
216
288
360
432
504
768
768
768
640
640
512
384
CG-6284
391

We now move out of region 1, since
2ry2 x > 2rx2 y.
For region 2, the initial point is

(x0,y0)=(7, 3) & the initial decision
parameter is
P20= f(7 + 1/2, 2) = -151.
DTEIT 19/8/
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392
THE REMAINING POSITIONS ALONG THE

ELLIPSE PATH IN THE FIRST QUARDANT
ARE THEN CALCULATED AS :
k p1k
0 -151
1 233
2 745
DTEIT 19/8/
(xk+1, yk+1)
(8,2)
(8,1)
(8,0)
2ry2 xk+1
2rx2 yk+1
576 256
576 128
--CG-6284
393
A plot of the selected positions around the ellipse boundary

with in the first quadrant is shown in figure :
DTEIT 19/8/
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394
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
POSITIONS ALONG ELLIPTICALPATH CENTERED

ON THE ORIGIN WITH rx=8, ry=6 USING THE
MIDPOINT ALGORITHM TO CALCULATE PIXEL
ADDRESSES IN THE FIRST QUADRANT.
DTEIT 19/8/
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395

(Program in pascal)
Procedure ellipse midpoint (xcenter, ycenter, rx, ry :

integer);
Var
p, px, py, x ,y : integer;
Ry2, rx2, tworx2, twory2 : integer;
Procedure plotpoints ;
begin
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396

Setpixel (xcenter + x, ycenter + y, 1);
Setpixel (xcenter - x, ycenter + y, 1);
Setpixel (xcenter + x, ycenter - y, 1);
Setpixel (xcenter - x, ycenter - y, 1)
End;
{plotpoints}
Begin
Ry2 := ry * ry;
Rx2 := rx * rx;
DTEIT 19/8/
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397
Twory2 := 2* ry2;
Tworx2 := 2* rx2;
{ Region 1 }
x := 0;
Y := ry;
Plotpoints;
P :=round ( ry2 - rx2 * ry + (0.25* rx2));
Px :=0;
DTEIT 19/8/
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398

Py := tworx2 * y;
While px < py do
Begin
X:= x + 1;
Px := px + twory2;
If p >= 0 then
Begin
Y := y-1
DTEIT 19/8/
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399

Py := py - tworx2
End;
If p < 0 then
P := p+ ry2 + px
Else
p := p+ ry2 + px - py;
Plotpoints
End;
{ region 2 }
DTEIT 19/8/
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400

P:= round ( ry2 * ( x + 0.5) * ( x + 0.5)+
* ( y-1) - rx2 * ry2);
rx2* (y - 1)
while y > 0 do
Begin
Y := y -1;
Py := py - tworx2;
If p <= 0 then
begin
DTEIT 19/8/
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401

X := x + 1;
Px := px + twory2
End;
If p>0 then
p := p+ rx2 - py
Else
p:= p + rx2 -py + px;
Plotpoints
End;
End;
{ ellipsemidpoint }
DTEIT 19/8/
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402
ATTRIBUTES
Any parameter that affects the way a
primitive is to be displayed is referred to as
an attribute parameter.
Some attribute parameters, such as color &
size , determine the fundamental
characteristics of a primitive.
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403
ATTRIBUTES
Others specified how the primitive is to be
displayed under special conditions.
Example of attributes in this class include
depth information for 3-d viewing &
visibility or detectability options for
interactive object selection programs
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404
ATTRIBUTES
Attributes that control the basic
display properties of primitives ,

without regard for special situations.
Lines can dotted or dashed, fat or
thin, & blue or orange.
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405
ATTRIBUTES
Areas might be filled with one color
or with amulticolor pattern.

Text can appear reading from left to
right, slanted diagonally across the
screen, or in vertical columns.
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406
ATTRIBUTES
Individual character can be displayed
in different fonts, colors, & sizes.
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407
LINE ATTRIBUTES
Basic attributes of a straight line segment
are its type, its width, & its color.

In some graphics packages, lines can also
be displayed using selected pen or brush
options.
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408
LINE TYPE
Possible selections for the line type
attribute include solid lines, dashed lines &
dotted lines.
We modify a line -drawing algorithm to
generate such lines by setting the length &
spacing of displayed solid.
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409
LINE TYPE
That is equal to the length of the solid
sections along the line path.
A dashed line could be displayed by
generating an interdash spacing sections.
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410
LINE TYPE
Both the length of the dashes & the
interdash spacing are often specified as user
options.
A doted line can be displayed by
generating very short dashes with the
spacing equal to or greater than the dash.
DTEIT 19/8/
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411
LINE TYPE
Size, similar methods are used to produce
other line type variations.
To set line type attributes in a phigs
application program, a user invokes the
function.
Setlinetype(it)
Where parameter it is
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412
LINE TYPE
Setlinestyle
Sets the current line style and width or

pattern
Declaration:
Void far setlinestyle(int linestyle, unsigned
upattern, int thickness);
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413
LINE TYPE
Remarks:
Setlinestyle sets the style for all lines drawn
by line, lineto, rectangle,
Drawpoly, etc.
Return value : if invalid input is passed to
setlinestyle, graphresult returns -11, and the
Current line style remains unchanged.
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414
LINE TYPE
Example:
#Include <graphics.H>
#Include <stdlib.H>
#Include <string.H>
#Include <stdio.H>
#Include <conio.H>
/* The names of the line styles supported */
Char *lname[] = {
"solid_line",
DTEIT 19/8/
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415
LINE TYPE
"Dotted_line",
"Center_line",
"Dashed_line",
"Userbit_line"
};
Int main(void)
{
/* request auto detection */
DTEIT 19/8/
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416
LINE TYPE
Int gdriver = DETECT, gmode;
Int style, midx, midy, userpat;
Char stylestr[40];
/* Initialize graphics and local variables */
initgraph(&gdriver, &gmode, "");
midx = getmaxx() / 2;
Midy = getmaxy() / 2;
/* A user defined line pattern */
/* binary: "0000000000000001" */
userpat = 1;
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417
LINE TYPE
For (style=solid_line; style<=userbit_line; style++)
{
Setlinestyle(style, userpat, 1);
/* Convert style into a string */
strcpy(stylestr, lname[style]);
/* Draw a line */
line(0, 0, midx-10, midy);
/* Draw a rectangle */
DTEIT 19/8/
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418
LINE TYPE
rectangle(0, 0, getmaxx(), getmaxy());
/* Output a message */
outtextxy(midx, midy, stylestr);
/* Wait for a key */
getch();
Cleardevice();
}
/* Clean up */
closegraph();
Return 0;
}
DTEIT 19/8/
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419
LINE WIDTH
Implementation of line width options
depends on the capabilities of the output
device.
A heavy line on a video monitor could be
displayed as adjacent parallel lines , while a
pen plotted might require pen changes.
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420
LINE WIDTH
We set the line width attribute with the
command :
Setlinewidthscalefactor (lw)
Linewidth parameter lw is assigned a
positive no to indicate the relative width of
the line to be displayed.
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421
LINE WIDTH
A value of one specifies a standard width
line.
On a pen plotter, for instance, a user could
set lw to value of 0.5 to plot a line whose
width is half that of the standard line.
DTEIT 19/8/
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422
LINE WIDTH
Values grater than 1 produce lines thicker
than the standard.
For raster implementation, a standard width
line is generated with single line pixels at
each sample position, as in the bresenham
algorithm.
DTEIT 19/8/
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423
LINE WIDTH
Other width lines are dirplaed as positive
integer multiples of the standard line by plotting
additional pixels along adjacent parallel line
paths.
For lines with slope magnitude less than 1, we
can modify a line drawing routine to display
thick lines by plotting a vertical span of pixels at
each x positions along the line.
DTEIT 19/8/
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424
LINE WIDTH
We plot a double width line by generating a
parallel line above the original line path.
For lines with slope magnitude greater than
1, we can plot thick lines with horizontal
spans, alternately picking up pixels to the
right & left of the line path.
DTEIT 19/8/
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425
LINE WIDTH
Another problem with implementing width
options using horizontal or vertical pixel
spans is that the method produce lines
whose ends are horizontal or vertical
regardless of the slope of the line.
DTEIT 19/8/
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426
LINE WIDTH
This effect is more noticeable with very
thick lines.
We can adjust the shape of the line ends to
give them a better appearance by adding
line caps.
DTEIT 19/8/
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427
LINE WIDTH
One kind of line cap is the butt cap

obtained by adjusting the end positions of
the component parallel lines so that the
thick line is displayed with square ends that
are perpendicular to the line path.
DTEIT 19/8/
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428
LINE WIDTH
Another line cap is the round cap obtained
by adding a filled semicircle to each butt cap.
The circular arcs are centered on the line
endpoints & have a diameter equal to the line
thickness.
A third type of line cap is the projective
square cap.
DTEIT 19/8/
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429
LINE WIDTH
Other methods for producing thick lines
include displaying the line as a filled
rectangle or generating the line with a
selected pan or brush pattern.
DTEIT 19/8/
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430
LINE WIDTH
DOUBLE WIDE RASTER LINE WITH SLOPE |m|<1

GENERATED WITH VERTICAL PIXEL SPANS
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
431
LINE WIDTH
RASTER LINE WITH SLOPE |m|>1 & LINE WIDTH PARAMETER

lw=4PLOTTED WITH HORIZONTAL PIXEL SPANS
DTEIT 19/8/
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432
LINE WIDTH
Displaying thick lines using horizontal &
vertical pixel spans, for example, leaves
pixel gaps at the boundaries between lines
of different slopes where there is a shift
from horizontal spans to vertical spans.
DTEIT 19/8/
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433
LINE WIDTH
We can generate thick polylines that are
smoothly joined at the cost of additional
processing at the segment end points.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
434
LINE WIDTH
Three possible methods for smoothly joining
two line segments.

Miter join : is accomplished by extending
the outer boundaries of each of the two lines

until they meet.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
435
LINE WIDTH
Round join: is produced by capping the
connection between the two segments with a

circular boundary whose diameter is equal to the
line width.
Bevel join : is generated by displaying the line
segments with butt caps & filling in the
triangular gap where the segments meet.
DTEIT 19/8/
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436
MITER JOIN
DTEIT 19/8/
ROUND JOIN
CG-6284
BEVEL JOIN
437
PEN & BRUSH OPTIONS

With some packages, lines can be displayed
with pen or brush selections.
Options in this category include shape, size &
pattern.
These shapes can be stored in a pixel mask
that identifies the array of pixel positions that
are to be set along the line path.
DTEIT 19/8/
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438
PEN & BRUSH OPTIONS

A rectangular pen can be implemented with the mask
shown by moving the center of the mask along the line
path.
Lines generated with pen shapes can be displayed in
various widths by changing the size of the mask.For
example, the rectangular pen line could be narrowed
with a 2 x 2 rectangular mask or widened with a 4 x 4
mask .
DTEIT 19/8/
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439
PEN & BRUSH OPTIONS

Lines can be displayed with selected
patterns by superimposing the pattern
values on to the pen or brush mask .
An additional pattern option that can be
provided in a paint package is the display of
simulated brush strokes.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
440
LINE COLOR
When a system provides color (or
intensity) options, a parameter giving the
current color index is included in the list of
system- attribute values.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
441
LINE COLOR
A polyline routine displays a line in the
current color by setting this color value in
the frame buffer at pixel locations along the
line path using the set pixel procedure.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
442
LINE COLOR
The number of color choices depends upon
the no. Of bits available per pixel in the
frame buffer.
We set the line color value in phigs with
the function :
Setpolylinecolourindex (lc).
DTEIT 19/8/
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443
LINE COLOR
Nonnegative integer values, corresponding
to allowed color choices, are assigned to the
line color parameter lc.
A line drawn in the background color is
invisible, & user can erase a previously line
by sespecifying it in the background color.
DTEIT 19/8/
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444
LINE COLOR
Example :this program segment would
display two figures, drawn with doublewide dashed lines.The first is displayed in a
color corresponding to code 5, & second in
color 6.
DTEIT 19/8/
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445
LINE COLOR
setLinetype(2);
setLinewidthScaleFactor(2);
setPolylineColorIndex(5);
polyline(n1, wcpoints1);
setPolylineColorIndex(6);
polyline(n2, wcpoints2);
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
446
A PIXEL MASK FOR A RECTANGULAR PEN
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
447
LINE
PATH
THE ASSOCIATED ARRAYOF PIXELS DISPLAYED

BY CENTERING THE MASK OVER A SPECIFIED
PIXEL POSITION.
DTEIT 19/8/
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448
GENERATING A LINE WITH THE PEN SHAPE
DTEIT 19/8/
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449
CURVE ATTRIBUTES
Parameters for curve attributes are same as
those for line segments.
We can display curves with varying colors,
widths, dot-dash patterns & available pen or
brush options.
DTEIT 19/8/
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450
CURVE ATTRIBUTES
Methods for adapting curve-drawing
algorithms to accommodate attribute
selections are similar to those for line
drawing.
The pixel masks are used also uased in raster
curve algorithms to generate dashed or
dotted patterns.
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451
CURVE ATTRIBUTES
We can generate the dashes in the various
octant using circle symmetry, but we must shift
the pixel positions to maintain the correct
sequence of dashes.
Raster curves of various widths can be
displayed using the method of horizontal or
vertical pixel spans.
DTEIT 19/8/
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452
CURVE ATTRIBUTES
Where the magnitude of the curve slope is
less than one, we plot vertical spans; where
the slope magnitude is greater than one, we
plot horizontal span.
Figure demonstrates this method for
displaying a circular arcs of width four in
the first quadrant.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
453
A DASHED CIRCULAR ARC DISPLAYED WITH A

DASH SPAN OF 3 PIXELS & AN INTERDASH
SPACING OF 2 PIXELS
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
454
CURVE ATTRIBUTES
Using a circle symmetry, we generate the circle path
with vertical spans in the octant from x=0 to x=y &
then reflect pixel positions about the line y=x to
obtain the reminder of the curve shown.
Circle sections in the other quadrants are obtained
by reflecting pixel positions in the first quadrant
about the coordinate axes.
DTEIT 19/8/
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455
CURVE ATTRIBUTES
The thickness of curves displayed with this

method is again a function of curve slope.
Circles, ellipses, and other curves will appear
thinnest where the slope has a magnitude of 1.
Another method for displaying thick curves is to
fill in the area between two parallel curve paths,
whose separation distance is equal to the desired
width.
DTEIT 19/8/
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456
CURVE ATTRIBUTES
We could do this using the specified curve path as
one boundary & setting up the second boundary
either inside or outside the original curve path.
Disadvantage : this approach , however , shifts
the original curve path either inward or outward,
depending on which direction we choose for the
second boundary.
DTEIT 19/8/
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457
CURVE ATTRIBUTES
We can maintain the original curve position by
setting the two boundary curves at a distance of
one half the width on either side of the specified
curve path.
An example of this approach is shown in figure,
for a circle segment with radius 16 & a specified
width of four.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
458
CIRCULAR ARCS OF WIDTH 4 PLOTTED

WITH PIXEL SPANS
DTEIT 19/8/
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459
CURVE ATTRIBUTES
The boundary arcs are then set at a separation
distance of two on either side of the radius of 16.
To maintain the proper dimensions of the circular
arcs, we can set the radii for the concentric boundary
arcs at r=14 & r=17.
The inner & outer boundaries of a fat ellipse
generated with this method do not have the same
foci.
DTEIT 19/8/
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460
CURVE ATTRIBUTES
Pen (or brush) displays of curves are
generated using the same techniques.
We replicate a pen shape along the line
path, as illustrated in figure, for circular arc
in the first quadrant.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
461
A CIRCULAR ARC OF WIDTH 4 & RADIUS 16

DISPLAYED BY FILLING THE REGION BETWEEN
2 CONCENTRIC ARCS.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
462
CIRCULAR ARC DISPLAYED

WITH A RECTANGULAR PEN
DTEIT 19/8/
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463
COLOR & GRAYSCALE LEVELS

Various color & intensity level options can
be made available to a user, depending on
the capabilities & design objectives of a
particular system.
General purpose raster scan system for
example, usually provide a wide range of
colors, while random scan monitors typically
offer only a few color choices, if any.
DTEIT 19/8/
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464

Color options are numerically coded with
values ranging from zero through the
positive integers.
For CRT monitors , these color codes are
then converted to intensity level setting for
the electron beams.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
465
THE 8 COLOR CODES FOR A THREE BIT PER PIXEL FRAME BUFFER
COLOR STORED COLOR VALUES DISPLAYED

IN FRAME BUFFER
COLOR
Code
0 0
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 1
5 1
6 1
7 1
DTEIT 19/8/
Red
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
Green
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
Blue
Black
Blue
Green
Cyan
Red
Magenta
Yellow
White
CG-6284
466

A user can set color table entries in a phigs
applications program with the function :
Setcolourrepresentation(ws, ci, colorptr)
Parameter ws identifies the workstation
output device; parameter ci specifies the color
index, which is the color table position
number(0 to 255)
DTEIT 19/8/
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467

Parameter colorptr points to a trio of RGB
color values (r, g, b) each specified in the
range from 0 to 1.
DTEIT 19/8/
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468
COLOR
LOOKUP
TABLE
TO RED GUN
TO GREEN GUN
TO BLUE GUN
Y 196
196
2081
00000000 00001000 00100001
255
X
A COLOR LOOKUP TABLE WITH 24 BITS PER ENTRY
ACCESED FROM A FRAME BUFFERWITH 8 BITS PER PIXEL.
A VALUE OF 196 STORED AT PIXEL POSITION ( X, Y)
REFERENCES THE LOCATION IN THIS TABLE CONTAINING
THEVALUE 2081.
DTEIT 19/8/
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469
There are several advantages in storing color

codes in a lookup table.
Use of a color table can be provide a
reasonable no. of simultaneous colors
without requiring large frame buffers.
For most applications , 256 or 512 different
colors are sufficient for a single picture.
DTEIT 19/8/
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470

Also , table entries can be changed at any
time , allowing a user to be able to
experiment easily with different color
combinations in a design, scene , or graph
without changing attribute setting for the
graphics data structure
.
DTEIT 19/8/
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471

Similarly, visualization applications can
store values for some physical quantity,
such as energy, in the frame buffer & use a
look up table to try out various color in
incodings without changing the pixel
values.
DTEIT 19/8/
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472

And in visualization image processing
applications , color tables are a convenient
means for setting color thresholds so that all
pixel values above or below a specified threshold
can be set to the same color. For these reasons,
some systems provide both capabilities for color
code storage, so that a user can elect either to use
color tables or to store color codes directly in the
frame buffer.
DTEIT 19/8/
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473
GRAYSCALE
With monitors that have no color capabilities,
color functions can be used in an application
program to set the shades of gray, or gray
scale, for displayed primitives. Numeric values
over the range 0 to 1 can be used to specify the
gray scale levels, which are then converted to
appropriate binary codes for storage in the
raster.
DTEIT 19/8/
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474
GRAYSCALE
This allows the intensity settings to be easily

adapted to systems with differing gray scale
capabilities. In this example, any intensity
+ Input value near 0.33 would be stored as the
binary value 01 in the frame buffer, & pixels with
this value would be displayed as dark gray. When
multiple output devices are available at an
illustration, the same color table interface may be
used for all monitors.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
475
GRAYSCALE
In this case, a color table for a
monochrome monitor can be setup using a
range of RGB values as in fig, with the
display intensity corresponding to a given
color index ci calculated as:
intensity= 0.5 [ min(r,g,b) + max(r, g, b)]
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
476
Intensity codes for a four level

grayscale system
INTENSITY STORED INTENSITY
CODES
VALUES IN THE
DISPLAYED
GRAYSCALE
FRAME BUFFER (BINARY CODE)
0.0
0.33
0.67
1.0
DTEIT 19/8/
0
1
2
3
(00)
(01)
(10)
(11)
CG-6284
Black
Dark gray
Light gray
White
477
AREA FILL ATTRIBUTES

Options for filling a defined region include
a choice between a solidcolor or a patterned
fill & choices for the particular colors &
patterns.
Area can be painted using various brush
styles , colors, & transparency parameters.
DTEIT 19/8/
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478
FILL STYLES
Areas are displayed with three basic fill styles:hollow with a color border, filled with a solid
color or filled with a specified pattern or design.
A basic fill style is selected in a PHIGS
program with the function.
Setinteriorstyle (fs)
Pattern fill
Soft fill
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
479
FILL STYLES
Values for the fill style parameter fs
includes hollow, solid and pattern.
Another values for fill style is hatch, which
is used to fill an area with selected hatching
patterns- parallel lines or crossed lines .
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
480
FILL STYLES
HOLLOW
SOLID
PATTERNED
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
481
PATTERN FILL
AND
OR
PATTERN
BACKGROUND
XOR
COMBINING A FILL PATTERN

REPLACE
WITH
A
BACKGROUND
PATTERN
USING
BOOLEN
OPERATIONS AND, OR, XOR &
PIXEL VALUES
REPLACEMENT.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
482
CHARACTER ATTRIBUTES
The appearance of displayed is controlled
by attributes such as font size, color, and
orientation.
Attributes can be set both for entire
character strings (text) and for individual
characters defined as marker symbols.
DTEIT 19/8/
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483
TEXT ATTRIBUTES
There are a great many text options that
can be made available to graphics
programmer's.
First of all, there is the choice of font
which is a set of characters with a particular
design style such as arial, times new roman.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
484
TEXT ATTRIBUTES
The character in a selected can also be
displayed with assorted underlying styles
(solid dotted , double ), in bold face, in italics,
and in out line or shadow styles.
A particular font & associated style is selected
in a PHIGS program by setting an integer code
for the text font parameter tf in the function :
settextfont (tf)
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
485
Character body
kern
top
cap
H f j
Character
height
base
bottom
kern
These characteristics of character body can be

changed with different functions in graphics package.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
486
Height 1
Height 1
Height 3
THE
EFFECT
OF
DIFFERENT CHARACTER
HEIGHT SETTINGS ON
DISPLAYED TEXT.
Text size can be adjusted without changing

the width-to-height ratio of character with :
setCharacterheight(ch)
parameter ch is assigned a real value
greater than 0 to set the coordinate height of
capital letters.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
487
Width 0.5
Width 1.0
Width 2.0
The Effect of different character

width settings displayed text.
The width only of text can be set with the

function :
setCharacterExpansionFactor (cw)
where the character width parameter cw is
set to a positive real value that scales the
body width of characters.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
488
Spacing 1.0
Spacing 0.0
Spacing 0.5
Spacing between character is controlled

separately with :
Setcharacterspacing(cs)
Where the character spacing parameter cs
can be assigned any real value.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
489
SL
A
UP VECTOR
NT
ED
TE
X
DIRECTION
OF
UP
VECTOR & CONTROLS
THE ORIENTATION OF
DISPLAYED TEXT.
The orientation for a displayed character

string is set according to the direction of the
character up vector :
setcharacterupvector(upvect)
Parameter upvect in this function is
assigned two values that specify the x & y
vector components.
DTEIT 19/8/
CG-6284
490
V
E
R
T
HORIZONTAL TEXT
I
C
A
L
TEXT PATH ATTRIBUTES

CAN BE SET TO PRODUCE
HORIZONTAL & VERTICAL
ARRANGEMENTS
OF
CHARACTER STRINGS.
It is useful in many applications to be able

to arrange character strings vertically or
horizontally.
setTextPath (tp)
where the text path parameter tp can be
assigned the value : right, left, up, or down.
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491
S
T
R
I
N
G
top
cap
top
STRING
cap
half
base
bottom
half
base
bottom
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ALIGNMENT
ATTRIBUTE
VALUES FOR HORIZONTAL
& VERTICAL STRINGS
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492
P
U
FT
LE
UP VECTORS TO CONTROL
THE DIRECTION OF THE
TEXT PATH
D
N
H
IG
R
W
O
Another handy attribute for character strings

is alignment.
setTextAlignment(h,v)
where parameters h & v control
horizontal & vertical allignment, respectively
assigning h a value of left, centre, or right,
asiigning v a value of top, cap, half, base, or
bottom.
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A precision specification for text display is

given with :
setTextPrecision(tpr)
where the text precision parameter tpr is
assigned one of the values strings,
characters or stroke.
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MARKER ATTRIBUTES
A marker symbol is a single character that can be
displayed in different colors & in different sizes.
Marker attributes are implemented by procedures
that load the chosen character into the raster at the
defined positions with the specified color & size.
We select a particular character to be the marker
symbol with :
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MARKER ATTRIBUTES
setMarkerType(mt)
where the marker type parameter mt is set to an
integer code. Typical codes for marker type are the
integers 1 through 5.
We set the marker size with :
setMarkerSizeScaleFactor(ms)
with parameter marker size ms assigned a positive
no.
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MARKER ATTRIBUTES
Marker color is specified with :
setpolymarkercolorindex(mc)
A selected color code for parameter mc is
stored in the current attribute list & used to
display subsequently specified marker
primitives.
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OUTPUT
PRIMITIVE
TYPE
ASSOCIATED
ATTRIBUTES
ATTRIBUTE SETTING
FUNCTIONS
Line
Type setLinetype
Width
setLineWidthScaleFactor
Color
setPolylineColorIndex
Text
Font setTextFont
Color
setTextColorIndex
Size
setCharcterHeight
setCharcterExpansionFactor
Orientation
setCharcterUpVector
setTextPath
setTextAlignment
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OUTPUT
PRIMITIVE
TYPE
ASSOCIATED
ATTRIBUTES
Fill Area
Fill Style
Fill Color
Pattern
Marker
Type
Size
Color
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ATTRIBUTE SETTING
FUNCTIONS
setInteriorStyle
setInteriorColorIndex
setInteriorStyleIndex
setPatternRepresentation
setPatternsize
setPatternReferencePoint
setMarkerType
setMarkersizeScaleFactor
setPolyMarkerColourIndex
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499
EXERCISE 2
Write a program to draw a line using
DDA algorithm in C language.
Write a program to draw a line using
Bresenhams algorithm using C
language.
Write a program to draw a circle using
mid-point algorithm using C language.
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500
EXERCISE 2
Modify mid-point circle algorithm to display
ellipse, as specified by input values for the
ellipse center and the major and minor
axis.Write a program to implement this
algorithm on your system.
Using DDA algorithm draw a triangle,
rectangle etc.
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501
EXERCISE 2
Modify a line-drawing algorithm so that
the intensity of the output is set
according to its slope.That is by
adjusting pixel intensity according to the
value of the slope, all lines are displayed
with the same intensity per unit length.
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DTEIT 19/8/

THREE YEAR DIPLOMA PROGRAM IN

Two floppies include 1000 Slides.

Features of Computer Graphics

of the most sophisticated

computer system in use today are designed

Features of Computer Graphics

You may Learn

You may Learn

Theory 15 credits and 10 marks for Practical .

75 +25 =100 (External Assessment)

Th Hrs Pr Hrs Tot

Minimum Passing Marks 30 out of 75

Practical performance, Viva, Theory test

BOOKS AND REFERENCES

BOOKS AND REFERENCES

Computers have become a

Although early applications in engineering and

Advances in computer technology have made

The use of bitmap graphics is for user

Bitmap is a ones & zeros

Images of objects are displayed by using

The user could

Rectangular screen areas

VIRTUAL GRAPHICS TERMINALS &

# EACH TERMINAL RUNNING AN

Direct manipulation of objects via :

Replaced much of the typing of the arcane

Computer graphics is no longer a rarity.

Computer graphics is an integral part of

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

routinely used in the design of :

EDUCATION & TRAINING

Models of physical systems, population

EDUCATION & TRAINING

Population trends, or equipment, such

as the color coded diagram can help

Producing graphical repress-entertains

to modify or interpret existing pictures, such as

APPLICATIONS OF IMAGE PROCESSING

IMPROVING PICTURE QUALITY,

MACHINE PRECEPTION OF VISUAL

RETOUNCING & REARRANGING OF

AND OTHER ART-WORK.

Show data values from sensors attached to

Let users interact with a simulation

Computer graphics is used to produce both

EXPLORATION MAPS FOR DRILLING &

WHEATHER MAPS &

The second classification is by the type of

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR INTERACTIVE GRAPHICS

APPLICATION MODEL : WHICH

VIDEO DISPLAY UNIT

# A series of graphics output commands

that contain both a detailed geometric of

between the application program and the

from user action to input to the

VIDEO DISPLAY DEVICES

RASTER SCAN SYSTEMS

RANDOM SCAN SYSTEMS

GRAPHIC MONITERS & WORKSTATIONS