Chapter 4

REFRIGERATION CYCLES

Siti Mariam Basharie @JKT, FKMP, UTHM 2015

Objectives
1. Introduce the concepts of refrigerators and heat pumps and
the measure of their performance.
2. Analyze the ideal and actual vapor-compression refrigeration
cycles.
3. Discuss the operation of refrigeration and heat pump systems.
4. Evaluate the performance of innovative vapor-compression
refrigeration systems.

Refrigerators and heat pumps

The transfer of heat from a low-temperature
region to a high-temperature one requires special
devices called refrigerators.
Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially the
same devices; they differ in their objectives only.
The objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat
(QL) from the cold medium while the objective of a
heat pump is to supply heat (QH) to a warm
medium.
The performance of the refrigerators and heat
pump is measured by using the Coefficient of
Performance (COP) where,

The Current applications of Refrigeration

Probably the most widely used current applications of refrigeration are
for air conditioning of private homes and public buildings, and
refrigerating foodstuffs in homes, restaurants and large storage
warehouses.
The use of refrigerators in kitchens for storing fruits and vegetables
has allowed adding fresh salads to the modern diet year round, and
storing fish and meats safely for long periods. Optimum temperature
range for perishable food storage is 3 to 5 C.
In commerce and manufacturing, there are many uses for
refrigeration. Refrigeration is used to liquify gases - oxygen, nitrogen,
propane and methane, for example.
In compressed air purification, it is used to condense water vapor from
compressed air to reduce its moisture content.

The Current applications of Refrigeration

In oil refineries, chemical plants, and petrochemical plants,
refrigeration is used to maintain certain processes at their needed low
temperatures (for example, in alkylation of butenes and butane to
produce a high octane gasoline component). Metal workers use
refrigeration to temper steel and cutlery.
In transporting temperature-sensitive foodstuffs and other materials by
trucks, trains, airplanes and seagoing vessels, refrigeration is a
necessity.
Dairy products are constantly in need of refrigeration, and it was only
discovered in the past few decades that eggs needed to be
refrigerated during shipment rather than waiting to be refrigerated after
arrival at the grocery store. Meats, poultry and fish all must be kept in
climate-controlled environments before being sold. Refrigeration also
helps keep fruits and vegetables edible longer.

Refrigerant : The working fluid of Refrigeration System

A refrigerant is a substance or mixture, usually a fluid, used in a
heat pump and refrigeration cycle. In most cycles it undergoes
phase transitions from a liquid to a gas and back again.
Many working fluids have been used for such purposes.
Fluorocarbons, especially chlorofluorocarbons, became commonplace
in the 20th century, but they are being phased out because of their
ozone depletion effects.
Other common refrigerants used in various applications are ammonia
, sulfur dioxide, and non-halogenated hydrocarbonssuch as propane.[1]
The ideal refrigerant would have favorable thermodynamic properties,
be noncorrosive to mechanical components, and be safe, including
free from toxicity and flammability. It would not cause ozone depletion
or climate change..

Refrigerant : The working fluid of Refrigeration System

The inert nature of many halons, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC), with the benefits of their being
nonflammable and nontoxic, made them good choices as refrigerants,
but their stability in the atmosphere and their corresponding
global warming potential and ozone depletion potential raised
concerns about their usage. In order from the highest to the lowest
potential of ozone depletion are Bromochlorofluorocarbon, CFC then
HCFC. Though HFC and PFC are non-ozone depleting, many have
global warming potentials that are thousands of times greater than
CO2. Some other refrigerants such as propane and ammonia are not
inert, and are flammable or toxic if released.
New refrigerants were developed in the early 21st century that are
safer for the environment, but their application has been held up due
to concerns over toxicity and flammability.[2]

Refrigerant : The working fluid of Refrigeration System

The R-400 series is made up of zeotropic blends (those where the
boiling point of constituent compounds differs enough to lead to
changes in relative concentration because of fractional distillation) and
the R-500 series is made up of so-called azeotropic blends.
The R-700 series is made up of non-organic refrigerants, also
designated by ASHRAE.
Below are some notable blended HFC mixtures. There exist many
more (see list of refrigerants). All R-400 (R-4xx) and R-500 (R-5xx)
hydroflurocarbons are blends, as noted above.
R-401A is a HCFC zeotropic blend of R-22, R-152a, and R-124. It is
designed as a replacement for R-12.[8]
R-404A is a HFC "nearly azeotropic" blend of 52 wt.% R-143a, 44 wt.
% R-125, and 4 wt.% R-134a. It is designed as a replacement of R-22
and R-502 CFC. Its boiling point at normal pressure is -46.5 C, its
liquid density is 0.485 g/cm3.[9]
R-406A is a zeotropic blend of 55 wt.% R-22, 4 wt.% R-600a, and 41

The Reversed Carnot Cycle

Sequence of Processes:
1-2 Reversible and isothermal heat
absorption in an evaporator;
2-3 Isentropic compression (in a
compressor);
3-4 Reversible and isothermal
condensation (in a condenser); and
4-1 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine).

The Reversed Carnot Cycle

Both COPs increase as the

difference between the two
temperatures decreases, i.e. as TL
rises or TH falls.

10

The Reversed Carnot Cycle

The reversed Carnot cycle is the most efficient refrigeration cycle operating
between TL and TH. But not a suitable model for refrigeration cycles
because:
(i) process 2-3 involves compression of a liquidvapor mixture - requires a
compressor that will handle two phases,
(ii) (ii) process 4-1 involves expansion of high-moisture-content refrigerant
in a turbine.

11

Example
The Reversed Carnot Cycle

A steady-flow Carnot refrigeration cycle uses refrigerant-134a as the

working fluid. The refrigerant changes from saturated vapor to saturated
liquid at 30C in the condenser as it rejects heat. The evaporator
pressure is 160 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram relative to
saturation lines, and determine:
(a) the coefficient of performance,
(b) the amount of heat absorbed from the refrigerated space, and
(c) the net work input.
Answers: (a) 5.64, (b) 147 kJ/kg, (c) 26.1 kJ/kg
12

The Ideal Vapor-compression Refrigeration Cycle

The Ideal Vapor-compression Refrigeration Cycle is the ideal model for
refrigeration systems. This model cycle is the most widely used cycle for
refrigerators, A-C systems, and heat pumps.
The refrigerant is vaporized completely before it is compressed and the turbine
is replaced with a throttling device.

13

The Ideal Vapor-compression Refrigeration Cycle

Sequence of Processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression in a compressor;
2-3 Constant pressure heat rejection in a
condenser;
3-4 Throttling process in an expansion device;
4-1 Constant pressure heat absorption in an
evaporator.

14

State of Processes
4-1 Constant Pressure Evaporation
Heat from a cold space is absorbed by the
refrigerant. As a result, the refrigerant
evaporates at a constant evaporator
pressure, from state 4 to become a drier
saturated vapor at state 1.
1-2 Isentropic compression
The saturated vapor is compressed from the
evaporator pressure to the condenser
pressure, in a reversible adiabatic manner.
The refrigerant exits the compressor as a
superheated vapor at state 2.
15

State of Processes
2-3 Constant Pressure Condensation
Heat is rejected from the refrigerant to a
warm space. As a result, the refrigerant
condenses at a constant condenser pressure
until it becomes a saturated liquid at state 3.
3-4 Constant Enthalpy Expansion
The refrigerant expands through the throttle
valve adiabatically. As a result, its pressure
drops from the condenser to the evaporator
pressure. The enthalpy is constant during the
process, i.e. h3 = h4.
Note: The expansion process is highly
irreversible, thus making the vaporcompression cycle an irreversible cycle.

16

Energy Analysis
All four processes can be analyzed as steady-flow processes.
The kinetic and potential energy changes of the steam are usually small.
Thus the Steady-flow Energy Equation per unit mass of steam reduces
to:

The P-h diagram of an ideal vaporcompression refrigeration cycle.

17

Energy Analysis
Refrigeration Capacity, Q L
Is defined as the amount of heat that has to be transferred from a
cold space per unit time
Used to determine the mass flow rate of refrigerant
Mass flow rate of refrigerant

m

refrigerator capacity
refrigerating effect per unit mass

18

Cycle Analysis
2 methods can be used for cycle analysis.
Using property table for refrigerants
Using the p-h diagram
P
qH = h 2 h 3

qL = h 1 h 4

1
h
win = h2 h1

19

p-h diagram for R-134a

20

21

22

In class practice
The ideal vapor-compression refrigeration Cycle

A refrigerator uses refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and operates on

an ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle between 0.12 and 0.7
MPa. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.05 kg/s. Show the cycle
on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines. Determine:
a) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space,
b) the power input to the compressor,
c) the rate of heat rejection to the environment, and
d) the coefficient of performance.
Answers: (a) 7.41 kW, 1.83 kW, (b) 9.23 kW, (c) 4.06

23

The Actual Vapor-compression Refrigeration Cycle

An actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle involves irreversibilities in
various components - mainly due to fluid friction (causes pressure drops) and
heat transfer to or from the surroundings. As a result, the COP decreases.
Differences :
Non-isentropic
compression;
Superheated vapor at
evaporator exit;
Sub-cooled liquid at
condenser exit;
Pressure drops in
condenser and
evaporator.
24

Subcooling And Its Effects

In the condenser, the vapor can be
further cooled at constant pressure to
a temperature that is lower than
temperature in condenser.
Subcooling (undercooling) increases
the refrigerating effect from (h1 h4) to
(h1 h4) where h4 is enthalpy with
subcooling and h4 is initial enthalpy
Subcooling is limited by temperature of
cooling water and temperature
difference of cycle.
.

25

26

27

28

In class practice
The Ideal?@ Actual Cycle

10?
Consider a 300 kJ/min refrigeration system that operates on an ideal
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with refrigerant-134a as the
working fluid. The refrigerant enters the compressor as saturated vapor at
140 kPa and is compressed to 800 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram
with respect to saturation lines, and determine the:
a)
b)
c)

quality of the refrigerant at evaporator inlet,

coefficient of performance, and
power input to the compressor.

29

In class practice
The Actual Cycle

10?
Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator as superheated
vapor at 0.14 MPa and 10C at a rate of 0.12 kg/s, and it leaves at 0.7
MPa and 50C. The refrigerant is cooled in the condenser to 24C and
0.65 MPa, and it is throttled to 0.15 MPa. Disregarding any heat transfer
and pressure drops in the connecting lines between the components,
show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and
determine:
a) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space,
b) the power input to the compressor,
c) the isentropic efficiency of the compressor, and
d) the COP of the refrigerator.
Answers: (a) 19.4 kW, 5.06 kW, (b) 82.5 percent, (c) 3.83

30

In class practice
The Actual Cycle

1017 Edition ?
A commercial refrigerator with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid is
used to keep the refrigerated space at 30C by rejecting its waste heat to
cooling water that enters the condenser at 18C at a rate of 0.25 kg/s and
leaves at 26C. The refrigerant enters the condenser at 1.2 MPa and
65C and leaves at 42C. The inlet state of the compressor is 60 kPa and
-34C and the compressor is estimated to gain a net heat of 450 W from
the surroundings. Determine
(a) the quality of the refrigerant at the evaporator inlet,
(b) the refrigeration load,
(c) the COP of the refrigerator, and
(d) the theoretical maximum refrigeration load for the same power input to
the compressor.
31

Innovative Vapor-Compression Refrigeration System

The simple vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the most
widely used refrigeration cycle, and is adequate for most
refrigeration applications.
The ordinary vapor-compression refrigeration systems are simple,
inexpensive, reliable, and practically maintenance-free.
However, for large industrial applications, efficiency (not simplicity)
is the major concern.
For some applications the simple vapor-compression refrigeration
cycle is inadequate and needs to be modified.
For moderately and very low temperature applications, some
innovative refrigeration systems are used. The following cycles will
be discussed:
Cascade refrigeration systems
32
Multistage compression refrigeration systems

Cascade Refrigeration System

Some industrial applications require moderately low temperatures,
and the temperature range they involve may be too large for a
single vapor compression refrigeration cycle to be practical.
A large temperature range also means a large pressure range in
the cycle and a poor performance for a reciprocating compressor.
One way of dealing with such situations is to perform the
refrigeration process in stages, that is, to have two or more
refrigeration cycles that operate in series.
Such refrigeration cycles are called cascade refrigeration cycles.

33

Cascade Refrigeration System

A two-stage cascade refrigeration cycle is as shown in fig. The two cycles are
connected through the heat exchanger in the middle, which serves as the
evaporator for the top cycle and the condenser for the bottom cycle.

34

Cascade Refrigeration System

From the T-s diagram, the
compressor work decreases and
the amount of heat absorbed from
the refrigerated space increases as
a result of cascading.
Therefore, cascading improves the
COP of a refrigeration system.
Some refrigeration systems use
three or four stages of cascading.

35

Cascade Refrigeration System

The refrigerants in both cycles are assumed
to be the same.
This is not necessary, however, since there is
no mixing taking place in the heat exchanger.
Therefore, refrigerants with more desirable
characteristics can be used in each cycle.
In this case, there would be a separate
saturation dome for each fluid, and the T-s
diagram for one of the cycles would be
different.
Also, in actual cascade refrigeration systems,
the two cycles would overlap somewhat since
a temperature difference between the two
fluids is needed for any heat transfer to take
36
place

Thermodynamics Analysis
Assuming the heat exchanger is well insulated and the kinetic and
potential energies are negligible, the heat transfer from the fluid in the
bottoming cycle should be equal to the heat transfer to the fluid in the
topping cycle.
Thus, the ratio of mass flow rates through each cycle should be

The coefficient of performance of the cascade system is

37

38

39

Problem 11-42
Cascade Refrigeration System

Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration system operating between

pressure limits of 0.8 and 0.14 MPa. Each stage operates on the ideal
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle with refrigerant-134a as the working
fluid. Heat rejection from the lower cycle to the upper cycle takes place in
an adiabatic counter-flow heat exchanger where both streams enter at
about 0.4 MPa. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the upper
cycle is 0.24 kg/s, determine the:
a) mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the lower cycle,
b) rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space,
c) power input to the compressor, and
d) coefficient of performance of this cascade refrigerator.
Answers: (a) 0.195 kg/s, (b) 34.2 kW, 7.63 kW, (c) 4.49
40

Problem 11-47
Cascade Refrigeration System

Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration system operating between

pressure limits of 1.2 MPa and 200 kPa with refrigerant-134a as the
working fluid. Heat rejection from the lower cycle to the upper cycle takes
place in an adiabatic counter-flow heat exchanger where the pressure in
the upper and lower cycles are 0.4 and 0.5 MPa, respectively. In both
cycles, the refrigerant is a saturated liquid at the condenser exit and a
saturated vapor at the compressor inlet, and the isentropic efficiency of the
compressor is 80 percent. If the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through
the lower cycle is 0.15 kg/s, determine the:
a) mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the upper cycle,
b) rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, and
c) coefficient of performance of the system.
Answers: (a) 0.212 kg/s, (b) 25.7 kW, (c) 2.68

41

Multistage Compression Refrigeration System

When the fluid used throughout the cascade
refrigeration system is the same, the heat
exchanger between the stages can be
replaced by a mixing chamber (called a flash
chamber) since it has better heat transfer
characteristics. This system can be carried
out with the use of one or more
compressors.

42

Multistage Compression Refrigeration System

Flash chamber used in a multi-stage refrigeration system is to
separate vapor and liquid refrigerant during the throttling process
The purpose is to avoid vapor refrigerants from entering evaporator.
The vapor developed during throttling (flash vapor) is bled out of the
throttling device and fed back to the compressor.

43

Multistage Compression Refrigeration System

The p-h diagram of the two-stage refrigeration system

44

The Process

In this system, the liquid refrigerant

expands in the first expansion valve
to the flash chamber pressure, which is the
same as the compressor interstage
pressure. Part of the liquid vaporizes
during this process.
This saturated vapor (x fraction at state 3)
is mixed with the superheated vapor from
the low-pressure compressor (1-x fraction
at state 2), and the mixture enters the highpressure compressor at state 9 (=1). This
is, in essence, a regeneration process.

45

The Process
The saturated liquid (state 7) expands
through the second expansion valve into the
evaporator, where it picks up heat from the
refrigerated space.
The compression process in this system
resembles a two-stage compression
with intercooling, and the compressor work
decreases.

46

Multistage Compression Refrigeration System

1 kg refrigerant moves through condenser
1kg liquid enters 1st throttle valve
1kg (mostly liquid) enters flash chamber and
starts to evaporate and becomes mixture of
gas (x)kg and liquid (1x)kg
(x) moves towards 2nd stage compressor at Pi
(1x)kg liquid make its way through the 2nd
throttle valve into the evaporator
(1x)kg vapor enters the 1st stage
compressor where it is compressed to Pi
At Pi (state 3) (1-x)kg vapor mixes with (x)kg
vapor adiabatically and becomes 1kg vapor
1kg vapor is compressed in 2nd stage
compressor
1kg vapor enters condenser to be condensed
and becomes 1kg liquid

47

Multistage Compression Refrigeration System

Fraction of refrigerant which evaporates in the flash chamber is given as

x6= (h6 hf) /hfg
Refrigerating Effect,
Total work input,

QL = Q81 = (1 x6)(h1 h8)

Win

= Wcomp1 + Wcomp2 = W12 + W94

= (1 x6)(h2 h1) + (1)(h4 h9)

Coefficient of Performance, COP = QL / Win

48

49

50

Problem 11-44
Two-Stage Compression Refrigeration Cycle

A two-stage compression refrigeration system operates with refrigerant134a between the pressure limits of 1 and 0.14 MPa. The refrigerant leaves
the condenser as a saturated liquid and is throttled to a flash chamber
operating at 0.5 MPa. The refrigerant leaving the low-pressure compressor
at 0.5 MPa is also routed to the flash chamber. The vapor in the flash
chamber is then compressed to the condenser pressure by the highpressure compressor, and the liquid is throttled to the evaporator pressure.
Assuming the refrigerant leaves the evaporator as saturated vapor at a rate
of 0.25 kg/s and that both compressors are isentropic, determine the:
a) fraction of the refrigerant that evaporates in the flash chamber,
b) rate of heat removed from the refrigerated space, and
c) coefficient of performance.
51

Problem 11-48 or 11.57 in 8th Edition

Two-Stage Compression Refrigeration Cycle

A two-stage cascade refrigeration system operates between pressure limits of

1.2 MPa and 200 kPa with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid. Saturated
liquid refrigerant leaving the condenser is throttled to a flash chamber
operating at 0.45 MPa. The vapor from the flash chamber is mixed with the
refrigerant leaving the low-pressure compressor. The mixture is then
compressed to the condenser pressure by the high-pressure compressor. The
liquid in the flash chamber is throttled to the evaporator pressure. The mass
flow rate of the refrigerant is 0.15 kg/s. Assuming saturated vapor refrigerant
leaves the evaporator and the isentropic efficiency is 80 percent for both
compressors, determine the:
a) mass flow rate of refrigerant in the high-pressure compressor,
b) rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space, and
c) coefficient of performance of the system.
d) rate of heat removal and the COP if this refrigerator operated on a single52
stage cycle between the same pressure limits with the same compressor
efficiency and flow rate as in part (a).

In Home Practices

53

Exercise
Actual Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator at 100 kPa and

-20C at a rate of 0.5 m3/min and leaves at 0.8 MPa. The isentropic efficiency
of the compressor is 78 percent. The refrigerant enters the throttling valve at
0.75 Mpa and 26C and leaves the evaporator as saturated vapor at -26C.
Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines and
determine ;
(a) the power input to the compressor, and
(b) the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space.

54

Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Test 2 Sem 2 - 2014/2015
Refrigerant-134a enters the compressor of a refrigerator at 140 kPa and
-10C at a rate of 0.3 m3/min and leaves at 1 MPa. The isentropic efficiency
of the compressor is 78%. The refrigerant enters the throttling valve at 0.95
MPa and 30C and leaves the evaporator as saturated vapor at -18.5C.
Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines and
determine,
i.
ii.

the power input to the compressor; and

the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space.

55

Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Test 2 Sem 1 - 2014/2015
A two-stage cascade compression refrigeration system provides cooling at
-40 C while operating the high temperature condenser at 1.6 MPa. Each
stage operates in the ideal vapor-compression cycle. The upper vapor
compression refrigeration system uses water as its working fluid and
operates its evaporator at 5C. The lower cycle uses refrigerant-134a as its
working fluid and operates its condenser at 400 kPa. This system produces
a cooling effect of 20 kJ/s. Sketch the T-s diagram and determine the mass
flow rate of R-134a and water in their respective cycles, and their overall
COP of this cascaded system.

56

Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Final Exam Sem 2 - 2014/2015
Consider a two-stage cascade refrigeration system operating between the
pressure limits of 1.2 MPa and 200 kPa with refrigerant-134a as the working fluid.
The refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid and is throttled to a flash
chamber operating at 0.45 MPa. Part of the refrigerant evaporates during this
flashing process, and this vapor is mixed with the refrigerant leaving the lowpressure compressor. The mixture is then compressed to the condenser pressure
by the high-pressure compressor. The liquid in the flash chamber is throttled to the
evaporator pressure and cools the refrigerated space as it vaporizes in the
evaporator. The mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the low-pressure
compressor is 0.15 kg/s. Assuming the refrigerant leaves the evaporator as a
saturated vapor and the isentropic efficiency is 80% for both compressors,
determine:
i.
ii.

the mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the high-pressure compressor;
and
the rate of heat removal from the refrigerated space.

57

Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle

Final Exam Sem 1 - 2014/2015
In Batu Pahat, there is an ice producing plant that operates on the vapourcompression refrigeration cycle with R-134a as the working fluid. The cycle
evaporator and condenser pressure are 140 kPa and 1200 kPa
respectively. Cooling water with a rate of 200 kg/s and temperature rise of
10oC is used to remove heat from the condenser. Potable water is supplied
to the chiller section of the refrigeration cycle to produce ice. For each kg of
ice produced, 333 kJ of energy must be removed from the potable water
supply. Assuming ideal conditions,
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

sketch the process flow diagram;

sketch the T-s diagram;
determine the mass flow rate of the refrigerant in kg/s; and
determine the mass flow rate of the potable water supply in kg/s.
58