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Engineering Alloys

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Engineering Alloys
E.g. stainless steel, cast iron, aluminium alloy and etc.
Iron and its alloy (steel) account for 90% world production of
metals due to their mechanical properties (strength, toughness
and ductility).
Ferrous alloys (based on Fe), nonferrous alloys (based on
other
metals.

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Gear teeth

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Production of iron and steel

Iron extracted from ores in large furnace (Fig 9.1).
Coke acts as reducing agent to reduce iron oxide:

Fe3O3 3CO 2 Fe 3CO2

The iron (pig iron), in liquid form is transferred to a steel
making furnace.
Steel making:
Plain steel, up to 1.2% carbon (majority < 0.5%)
Steel is made by oxidizing carbon and other impurities in pig
iron until the required level (oxygen process).
Pig iron and up to 30% steel scrap are charged in the refractory
with oxygen (Fig. 9.2)

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Figure 9.1

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Figure 9.2

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Production of steel- Cont

Fe ( pig iron ) O2 2 FeO
Then,

C ( from steel ) Fe CO

The molten steel is then cast is stationary mould or

continuously cast in long slabs (96%). (fig 9.5b).
About one-half of the raw steel are from recyle old steel (junk
cars and appliances).

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Figure 9.5b

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Iron-iron carbide phase diagram

Several solid phase (Fig 9.6):
ferrite an interstitial solid solution of C in BCC iron lattice
(low solubility of C).
Austenite () - an interstitial solid solution of C in FCC iron
lattice (higher solubility of C as compared to ferrite).
Cementite (Fe3C) intermetallic compound (6.67% C and
93.3% Fe)
ferrite - an interstitial solid solution of C in BCC iron lattice
with greater a than ferrite.

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Figure 9.6

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Invariant reactions
Peritatic reaction:
Liquid (0.53% C) + (0.09% C) 1495 oC (0.17% C)
Eutectic reaction:
Liquid (4.3% C) 1148 oC (2.08% C) + Fe3C (6.67% C)
Eutectoid reaction:
(0.8% C) 723 oC ferrite (0.02% C) + Fe3C (6.67% C)

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Plain Carbon steel (0.8% C) Eutectoid steel

Fig 9.7:
If heated at 750 oC, held for sufficient time, structures becomes
austenite, (austenitizing process)
Further slow cooling to about eutectoid temperature or slightly
above, the structure is still austenite ().
Further cooling to below eutectoid temperature, the structure is
changed to alternate plates of ferrite and cementite (Fe3C)
pearlite structure.

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Figure 9.7

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Plain Carbon steel (< 0.8% C) hypoeutectoid steel

Fig 9.9:
Above eutectoid temperature (900 oC), austenite structure
Further cooling, the structure keep on changing until all structure
will change to ferrite and cementite.
Plain Carbon steel (> 0.8% C) hypereutectoid steel
Fig 9.11:
For composition having >0.8 % carbon, above eutectoid
temperature (950 oC), austenite structure.
Further cooling, the structure keep on changing until all structure
will change to ferrite and cementite
E.g. Pg 2

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Figure 9.9

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Figure 9.11

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Heat treatment of plain carbon steel

By varying the way plain carbon still is heated and cooled,
different combinations of mechanical properties can be obtained:
Formation of Fe-C martensite: steel in austenitic condition is
cooled rapidly to RT by quenching with water, the structure
will
change to martensite.
- Different type of martensite depending on %C, <0.6% C :lath
martensite, >0.6% C : plate martensite will start to form and
>1% C, plate martensite will form entirely
- Hardness and strength of martensite increase, if C contents
increase, but ductility and toughness will decrease.

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Figure 9.13

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Heat treatment of plain carbon steel Cont

Isothermal decomposition procedure (Fig 9.20), show that
microstructural change over the process (Fig 9.21).
Different type of treatment (Figure 9.28):
-Annealing (full annealing austenite region, cooling in the
furnace and process annealing internal stress relief, below
eutectoid temperature 550-650 oC)
-Normalizing (heated in austenite region, slowly cooled in still
air). Purpose, refine grain structure, increase strength, uniform
structure).
- Tempering Heating martensitic steel at a temperature below
eutectoid, to make it softer and more ductile.
-Martempering (marquenching) to minimize the distortion
and cracking during uneven cooling.
- Austempering to improve ductility, impact resistance and
decrease distortion.

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Figure 9.20

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Figure 9.21

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Figure 9.28

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Limitations of plain carbon steel

Cannot be strengthened beyond 100,000 psi (690 MPa)
without
loss in ductility and impact resistance.
Large section thicknesss cannot be produced with martensite
structure.
Low corrosion and oxidation resistance
Poor impact resistance at low temperatures
Must be quenched rapidly to obtain full martensitic structure
which lead to possible distortion and cracking.
To overcome this, other types of alloy steels have been
developed to improve their properties.

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Figure EP9.3

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Classification of plain- carbon steels

Designated by a four digit AISI-SAE code. The 1st two digits
are 10 indicating the steel is plain carbon steel and the last 2
digits indicate the nominal C content of in the hundredths of a
percent (Fig 9.3)
All plain carbon steel contain manganese (0.3 0.95%) to
enhance strength
Very-low-carbon steel (1010), Medium-carbon steel (10201040) and High-carbon steel (1060-1095)
AISI - American Iron and steel Institute, SAE Society for automotive Engineers

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Low Alloy Steels

Alloy steel may contain up to 50% alloying elements and can

still considered alloy steels.
Low alloy steels contain 1-4 % alloying elements.
Examples: manganese, molybdenum, sulfur, chromium,
nickel and silicon (refer to table 9.4)
Alloy steels in US are designated by 4 digits:
- 1st two digits the principle alloying elements
- Last 2 digits the hundredth of % C in steel
Distribution of elements in carbon steels depends primary on
compound and carbide forming tendencies of each element
(Table 9.5).
Alloying elements which affect the eutectoid temperature of
steel (refer to 9.35). For e.g. Mn and Ni (austenite stabilizing
elements lower the eutectoid temperature, thus enlarging the
austenitic region. Other elements such as titanium, tungsten
and molybdenum (ferrite-stabilizing elements) give the
opposite effect.

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Figure 9.35

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Aluminium Alloys

The hardening process that is used to increase many Al and

other metal alloys is precipitation hardening
Process involved:
- Solution heat treatment (sample is heated to a certain
temperature, soaked there until uniform solid structure is
produced)
- Quenching, rapid cooling to RT using water
- Aging, to form fine dispersed precipitate which prevent
dislocation movement. Natural aging at RT, artificial aging
at elevated temperature.
Al has low density, good corrosion resistance, nontoxic, good
electrical properties, relatively cheap, low strength but can be
alloyed up to 690 MPa.

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Figure 9.43

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Aluminium Alloys Cont

Al is produced from bauxite (hydrated aluminum oxide).

Bauxite is treated with NaOH (Bayer Process):
bauxite + NaOH sodium aluminate precipitate
aluminium hydroxide thickened & calcine Al2O3
dissolved in cryolite (Na3AlF6) electrolysed, C as
cathode and anode metallic Al forms in the liquid state
(99.5-99.9% purity with Fe and silicon as major impurities)
Al is sent to refractory furnace for refining where
alloying elements can be added to the furnace followed by
casting into desired shapes (wrought Al alloys or Al casting
alloy).
Wrought Al alloy (sheet, plate, rod, wires) are calssified
according to the major alloying elements (Table 9.7)
1st digit indicate alloy group, 2nd digit indicates modification
of the original alloy and the last 2 digits indentify the Al alloy
or Al purity

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Aluminium Alloys Cont

Non-Heat-Treatable wrought Al alloys: Cannot be

precipitation strengthened but can be cold worked to increase
strength.
The 3 main group are 1xxx, 3xxx and 5xxx groups
E.g. 1xxx min 99% Al, Fe and silicon (alloying elements)
with 0.12% Cu for extra strength. (refer to pg 4 of the hand
out for the rest)
Refer to table 9.8 (pg. 5 of handout) for the list of
compositions, mechanical properties and etc.

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Aluminium Alloys Cont

Heat-Treatable wrought Al alloys: Can be precipitation

strengthened by heat treatment.
The 3 main group are 2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx groups
E.g. 2xxx The principle alloying elements is Cu. Mg is also
added. One of the most important is 2024 (4.5% Cu, 1.5%
Mg, 0.6% Mn) high strength and is used for aircraft
structural. (refer to pg. 4 of the hand out for the rest).
Refer to table 9.8 (pg. 5 of handout) for the list of
compositions, mechanical properties and etc.

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Aluminium Alloys Cont

Al casting alloys
3 main process:
Sand casting small quantities of identical casting, complex
casting, large casting and structural casting.
Permanent mould casting simple shape and small size
mould. Produced finer grain structure and less shrinkage than
sand casting.
Die casting can be produced at high rates (high pressure),
smooth surfaces and process can be automated.

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Aluminium Alloys Cont

Al casting alloys are developed casting qualities such fluidity,

feeding ability, strength, ductility and corrosion resistance.
Differ greatly from wrought Al. These alloys are grouped by
major alloying elements by using 4 digit number with a
period between the last two digits (refer to Table 9.9)
5-12% silicon is added to increase its fluidity and its feeding
ability, strengthens the alloy.
0.3 1% Mn is added to increase the strength.
1 4% Cu is added to increase strength esp. at elevated temp.

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Figure 9.44

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Copper Alloys

Cu metal can be used in the unalloyed condition (mainly used

in electrical industries as well as alloyed form.
In unalloyed form high electrical and thermal conductivity,
good corrosion resistance, ease of fabrication, medium
strength and etc.
Alloyed conditions in a series of brass and bronze
Cu is extracted from ores containing Cu and iron sulfides
(refer to pg. 6 of handout for detail explanation). At the end of
the processes produce electrolytic tough pitch (ETP) Cu,
99.95%.
ETP Cu is used to produce wire, rod, plate and strip. Contain
0.04% oxygen as impurity.

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Copper Alloys Cont

Classification of Cu alloys:
- C10100 to C79900 refer to wrought alloys
- C80000 to C99900 refer to casting alloys
Refer to table 9.10 pg.6, for Cu alloys classification
Refer to Table 9.11 pg 7, for properties and application of Cu
alloys.
- E.g. Cu-Zn brasses, 5- 40% Zn. Small amount of lead is
added to improve machinability. (Fig. 8.25)

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Figure 8.25

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Stainless Steels

These alloys is selected due to their excellent corrosion

resistance in many environment (due to the presence of Cr, at
least 12%).
4 main types: ferritic, martensitic, austenitic and precipitation
hardening.
- Ferritic (12 30% Cr), relatively low cost
- Martensitic (12 17% Cr, 0.15-1.0% C)
- Austenitic (16 25% Cr and 7-20% Ni). Better corrosion
resistance due to the presence of Ni.

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Figure 9.55

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Cast Iron

A family of ferrous alloys. They are intended to be cast into

the desired shape. Unlike steels (<1% C), cast irons contain
2-4% C and 1-3% silicon, other element may be present also.
Easily melt and very fluid in liquid state and have wide range
of strengths and hardness, good wear resistance. Have
relatively low impact resistance and ductility.
4 different common types which can be differentiated by the
distribution of carbon in their microstructures:
- White iron iron carbides in a pearlitic structure (when
fractured produce white or bright crystalline surface)
- Gray iron precipitates as graphite flake (when
fractured produce gray surface due to exposed graphite
- Malleable iron first cast as white iron, and then heated to
dissociate iron carbide to graphite and iron (temper carbon)
- Ductile iron combine the processing advantages of gray
cast iron with similar engineering properties as steel (high
strength, toughness, ductility and etc)

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Other alloys

Mg alloys light metal, suitable for low-density application

(aerospace applications).Limited advantages due to very high
cost, difficult to cast (burns in air), low strength, poor
resistance to creep, fatigue and wear. Wrought alloys and
casting alloys
Titanium alloys relatively light but has high strength,
superior corrosion resistance. It is expensive because very
difficult to extract from its compound.
Nickel alloys Exceptional resistance to corrosion and high
temperature oxidation. Relatively expensive and high density
(limits its use).

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