Epithelium & Glands

General Module (2010/2011)

Dr Syed Baharom Syed Ahmad Fuad

Faculty of Medicine
Universiti Teknologi MARA

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Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, students should be able to:
define the tissue & tissue types
describe the types, characteristics, distribution and
functions of epithelial tissue.
describe the classification of glands based on
exocrine and endocrine secretion.
describe the classification of exocrine glands based
on number of cells (uni or multicellular) duct systems,
secretory portion, type and mode of secretion.

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Epithelium & glands

CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE
CHARACTERISTICS, FUNCTION &
DISTRIBUTION
SPECIALISED STRUCTURE OF EPITHELIAL
TISSUE
CLASSIFICATION OF EXOCRINE GLANDS
EXOCRINE AND ENDOCRINE GLANDS

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Cells to Tissues
As human body develops from single
to multicellular, cells specialize.
Body is interdependent system,
malfunction of one group of cells is
catastrophic.
Cells specialize into types of tissues,
then interspersed into organs.
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Tissues = groups of cells that are

similar in structure and function.
Epithelium

Muscle

Coverings
Linings of surfaces

Connective
Support
Bone, ligaments,
fat
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Movement

Nervous
Control
Brain, nerves,
spinal cord
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The Four Basic Tissues

Epithelium
Lining or glandular,
avascular

intercellular space, junctions,

Connective tissue

intercellular space, vascularized

Muscle tissue
Elongated cells specialized for contraction (smooth,
skeletal, cardiac)

Nervous tissue
Elongated cells specialized to receive & send signals
(neurons)
Glial supportive cells
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Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

Form continuous sheets (fit like tiles)
Apical Surface
All epithelial cells have a top surface that borders an
open space known as a lumen
Basement Membrane
Underside of all epithelial cells which anchors them to
connective tissue
Avascularity (a = without)
Lacks blood vessels
Nourished by connective tissue
Regenerate & repair quickly

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Function of Epithelial Tissue

Protection
Skin protects from sunlight & bacteria & physical
damage.
Absorption
Lining of small intestine, absorbing nutrients into
blood
Filtration
Lining of Kidney tubules filtering wastes from blood
plasma
Secretion
Different glands produce perspiration, oil, digestive
enzymes and mucus
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Classification of
Epithelial Tissue
Cell Shape
Squamous flattened like fish
scales
Cuboidal - cubes
Columnar - columns
Cell Layers
Simple (one layer)
Stratified (many layers)
Named for the type of cell at
the apical surface.
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Classification of Epithelium
Number of layers of cells
Simple- one layer of cells. Each extends from
basement membrane to the free surface
Stratified- more than one layer.
Pseudostratified- tissue appears to be stratified,
but all cells contact basement membrane so it is in
fact simple

Shape of cells
Squamous- flat, scale-like
Cuboidal- about equal in height and width
Columnar- taller than wide
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Classifications of Epithelia

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Epithelium is one of the primary tissues. Typically it consists of cells that are closely
opposed to one another. The epithelial tissues are divided into two major groups:
namely, the covering and lining epithelial membranes and second the glandular
epithelium.
Covering & Lining Epithelium
Simple Squamous
Simple Cuboidal
Simple Columnar
Pseudostratified Columnar
Stratified Squamous Nonkeratinizing
Stratified Squamous Keratinizing
Transitional
Stratified Cuboidal
Pigmented
Glandular Epithelium
Unicellular Glands
Simple Glands
Compound Glands
Endocrine Glands
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SIMPLE EPITHELIA
Simple squamous epithelium
Composed of a single layer of flat, scale- or plate-like cells.
Nuclei are often flattened or ovoid and are located close to the
centre of the cells.
The endocardium, serous membranes, blood vessels and
lymph vessels are typically lined by a simple squamous
epithelium
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Cells appear cuboidal in sections. Found in small excretory
ducts of many glands, follicles of the thyroid gland,
tubules of the kidney and on the surface of the ovaries.
Simple columnar epithelium
Cells are taller than they are wide. Nuclei are located at the
same height within the cells - usually close to the base of the cells.
Lines the internal surface of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) from the
cardia of the stomach to the rectum.
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Simple Squamous Epithelium

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Simple Squamous Epithelium

Capillary wall. H&E stain. Magnification 400x.
The lining of all blood vessels morphologically is a simple
squamous epithelium, and usually is referred to as the
endothelium.
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Bowman's capsule. H&E stain. Magnification
600x.
At increased magnification note the delicate thin cytoplasm of the
simple squamous epithelial cells and the presence of prominent
ovoid nuclei
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Simple squamous epithelium

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RBC

Simple Squamous (Endothelium)

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EM micrograph
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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium: Renal (kidney) tubules. H&E stain. Magnification 400x.
Simple cuboidal epithelium consists of a single layer of cells, appear to be as
wide as they are tall. The upper pointer locates the supporting basal
membrane for the simple cuboidal epithelium, while the lower
pointer indicates a structure called the brush border.
The brushborder is composed of structures called microvilli.
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium : Kidney tubules. Mallory's stain. Magnification 400x.
Note the cellular morphology,
the brush border and the
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basal membrane supporting the simple cuboidal epithelium

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Kidney tubules. Periodic acid-Schiff reaction. Magnification 400x.
The periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) reaction detects the presence of certain glycogenic
mucopolysaccharides. The brush border of the simple cuboidal epithelium is stained a dark redpurple, indicating a positive PAS reaction
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Liver hepatic cells. H&E stain. Magnification 400x.
The hepatic cells of the liver appear morphologically as a type of cuboidal epithelium in
histologic sections
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Germinal epithelium of the ovary. H&E stain. Magnification 400x.
A layer of simple cuboidal epithelium covers the free surface of the ovary. Some now use the
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term cuboidal surface epithelium.

Simple Columnar Epithelium

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Simple Columnar Epithelium

Gall bladder. H&E stain. Magnification 400x.
Longitudinal sections of simple columnar epithelium reveal cells that are tall, elongated,
prismatic in morphology, and with an ovoid nucleus usually located toward the basal end of the cell.
Simple columnar epithelial cells rest upon a thin basement membrane.
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Gall bladder. H&E stain. Magnification 600x.
On the free surface of the tall columnar cells the presence of a darker staining band forming a
structure known as the striated border. Like the brush border in cuboidal cells, the striated border is
composed of microvilli.
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Duodenal area of the small intestine. H&E stain. Magnification 400x.
Single row of tall-elongated prismatic cells. The pointer on the left side of the indicates the
striated border, while the larger pointer terminates in the mucus plug of a goblet cell.
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Simple columnar
epithelium

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Simple cuboidal epithelium

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Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium

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Types of Epithelium
Classifications

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Typical Locations

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STRATIFIED EPITHELIA
Stratified squamous epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelia vary in thickness depending on the
number of cell layers present. The deepest cells, which are in contact with the
basement membrane, are cuboidal or columnar in shape. This layer is usually
named the basal cell layer, and the cells are called basal cells. Basal cells are
mitotically active and replace the cells of the epithelium. The basal cell layer is
followed by layers of cells with polyhedral outlines. Close to the surface of the
epithelium, cells become more flattened. At the surface of the epithelium, cells
appear like flat scales - similar to the epithelial cells of simple squamous
epithelia.
Stratified cuboidal and columnar epithelia
are not common. A two-layered cuboidal epithelium is seen in the ducts
of the sweat glands.
Stratified columnar epithelia are found in the excretory ducts of the
mammary gland and the main excretory duct of the large salivary glands.
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Stratified Epithelia

Contain two or more layers of cells

Regenerate from below
Major role is protection
Are named according to the shape of cells
at apical layer

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Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Description
Many layers of cells squamous in shape
Deeper layers of cells appear cuboidal or
columnar
Thickest epithelial tissue adapted for
protection

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Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Specific types
Keratinized contain the protective protein
keratin
Surface cells are dead and full of keratin

Non-keratinized forms moist lining of body

openings

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Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Function Protects underlying tissues in
areas subject to abrasion
Location
Keratinized forms epidermis
Non-keratinized forms lining of esophagus,
mouth, and vagina

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Stratified Squamous Epithelium

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Figure 4.3e

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PSEUDOSTRATIFIED AND TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIA

Transitional epithelium
Transitional epithelium is found mainly in the excretory urinary passages
(the renal calyces and pelvis, the ureter, the urinary bladder, and part
of the urethra).
The shape of the cells varies with the degree of distension of the
organs. It appears to be formed by many cell layers in relaxed
state. The
most basal cells have a cuboidal or columnar shape.
There are several layers of polyhedral cells, & a layer of superficial cells,
which have a convex, dome-shaped luminal surface.
In the distended state it consists of 1-2 layers of cuboidal cells followed
by a superficial layer of large, low cuboidal or squamous cells.

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

All cells of this type of epithelium are in contact with the basement
membrane, but not all of them reach the surface of the epithelium.
The nuclei of cells are often located at different heights within the
epithelium and give the epithelium a stratified appearance.
Pseudostratified columnar epithelia are found in the excretory ducts
of many glands.
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Transitional Epithelium

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Transitional epithelium

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Types of Epithelium
Classifications

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SPECIAL CYTOLOGICAL FEATURES OF EPITHELIA

Basement membrane
Epithelia are separated from the underlying connective tissue by an
supporting layer called the basement membrane. The basement membrane
is composed of two sublayers. The basal lamina consists of fine protein
filaments embedded in an amorphous matrix. It is produced by the epithelial
cells. The reticular lamina consists of reticular fibres embedded in ground
substance. The components of the reticular lamina are synthesised by cells
of the connective tissue underlying the epithelium. The basal lamina supports
the epithelium and acts as a selectively permeable filter between epithelium
and connective tissue.

SPECIALISATIONS OF THE APICAL SURFACE

Microvilli and stereocilia
They are finger- or thread-shaped extensions of the epithelial cells.
Their main function is to increase the surface area of epithelial cells.
They are typically found in epithelia active in absorption. Microvilli
contain actin filaments, which are in contact with the terminal web of
the cell . The only difference between microvilli and stereocilia is their
length. Microvilli are much shorter than stereocilia. Stereocilia are,
despite their name ("cilia"), not actively moving structures.
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Epithelial Surface Features

Apical surface features
Microvilli finger-like extensions of plasma
membrane
Abundant in epithelia of small intestine and kidney
Maximize surface area across which small
molecules enter or leave

Cilia whip-like, highly motile extensions of

apical surface membranes
Movement of cilia in coordinated waves

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Microvilli
Extensions of cell membrane (1-2m)
Some contain actin
Function
increase surface area for absorption
brush border of small intestine

milking action of actin

actin filaments shorten microvilli
pushing absorbed contents down into cell
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Small Intestine - Surface Area

Circular folds (plicae circularis) up to 10 mm tall
involve only mucosa and submucosa
chyme flows in spiral path causing more contact

Villi are fingerlike projections 1

mm tall
contain blood vessels and
lymphatics (lacteal)
nutrient absorption

Microvilli 1 micron tall;

cover surface
brush border on cells
brush border enzymes for
final stages of digestion

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Cross Section of a Microvillus

Note: actin microfilaments are found in center of each microvilli.

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Cilia
Hairlike processes 7-10m long
single, nonmotile cilium found on nearly every cell
Sensory in inner ear, retina and nasal cavity

Motile cilia
beat in waves
power strokes followed by recovery strokes

Chloride pumps produce

saline layer at cell
surface. Floating mucus
pushed along by cilia.

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Figure 3.11a

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Figure 3.11

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Figure 3.12a

Mucus traps stuff, cilia moves the stuff out of the way. Best example is
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelial cells of the upper respiratory
tract and the male urethra.
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Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

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Epithelium: Glandular
A gland is one or more cells that makes and secretes
an aqueous fluid
Two types of glands formed by infolding of epithelium:
Endocrine: no contact with exterior of body; ductless; produce
hormones (pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas)
Exocrine: open to exterior of body via ducts (sweat, oil)

Exocrine glands classified either by structure or by the

method of secretion
Classified by structure
Unicellular: goblet cells
Multicellular: sweat, oil, pituitary, adrenal
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Multicellular Exocrine Glands

Classified on the basis of types of

ducts or mode of secretion
Types of ducts
Simple: ducts with few
branches
Compound: ducts with many
branches
If ducts end in tubules or
sac-like structures: acini.
Pancreas
If ducts end in simple
sacs: alveoli. Lungs

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GLANDS
are cells or aggregations of cells whose function is secretion.
Exocrine glands release the secretory product via ducts while
Endocrine glands release their secretory product (typically hormones) into the
extracellular space from which it enters the bloodstream.
Both endocrine and exocrine glands are derived from epithelia.
Classification of Exocrine Glands
Exocrine glands may be classified according to cell number, and/or the shape and
branching pattern of their secretory portions and ducts.
Unicellular Glands
consist of a single secretory cell e.g goblet cells. Goblet cells secrete the
glycoprotein mucin, which by the uptake of water is converted into a slimy
substance, mucus.
Multicellular glands
The simplest form of a multicellular gland is a secretory epithelial sheath
surface epithelium consisting entirely of secretory cells (e.g. the epithelium
lining the inner surface of the stomach, where the mucous secretion
protects the stomach wall from the acidic contents of the stomach).
Other multicellular glands have their secretory portion embedded in the
connective tissue underlying the epithelium. The secretion is either
discharged directly from the secretory portion onto the epithelium or reaches
the epithelium via a duct system
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The secretory portion may have a variety of

shapes. Secretory cells may form tubes
in tubular glands, acini in acinar glands or
alveoli in alveolar glands.
The pancreas is a tubulo-acinar gland, in which each section of
the secretory system has a specialized function.
The precursors of digestive enzymes are produced by the acinar
cells. Tubular cells secrete the alkaline bicarbonate solution which
eventually neutralizes the acidic contents of the stomach that are
released into the duodenum.
Multicellular glands with an unbranched excretory duct are called
simple. A compound gland when the excretory duct is branched.
Finally, the part of the gland consisting of secretory cells is
branched in a branched gland.
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.... Simple = single duct

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Glandular epithelium
Exocrine
w/ ducts
Acinar

Tubular

Tubuloacinar

Simple

Compound

Endocrine
w/o ducts
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- based on Product(s) released (serous, mucous, mixed)

Sublingual
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Parotid
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Submandibular
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Secretory Mechanisms
The secretory cells can release their secretory
products by one of three mechanisms.

In Merocrine secretion vesicles open onto the surface of the cell, and the
secretory product is discharged from the cell without any further loss of cell
substance.

In Apocrine secretion part of the apical cytoplasm of the cells is lost together
with the secretory product. The continuity of the plasma membrane is restored by
the fusion of the broken edges of the membrane, and the cell is able to accumulate
the secretory product anew e.g. apocrine sweat glands, the mammary glands and
the prostate.

In Holocrine secretion the breakdown and discharge of the entire secretory cell
e.g sebaceous glands of the skin.
There are two additional mechanisms by which secretory cells can release their
products. Lipid soluble substances may diffuse out of the secretory cell (e.g. steroid
hormone producing endocrine cells). Transporters (membrane proteins) may
actively move the secretory product across the plasma membrane (e.g. the acid
producing parietal cells of the gastric glands).
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- based on Method of Secretion

Holocrine

Merocrine

(whole cells)

(vesicles)

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Apocrine
(cell parts)
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STRUCTURE OF LARGE EXOCRINE GLANDS

The entire gland is surrounded by a layer of dense connective tissue; the capsule.

Connective tissue sheets (septa) extend from the capsule into the secretory tissue
and subdivide the gland into a number of lobes. Thinner connective tissue septa
subdivide the lobes into a number of lobules.
Reticular connective tissue surrounds and supports the secretory units of the
glands (alveoli, acini etc.) and the initial parts of the excretory ducts .
Blood and lymph vessels,and nerves penetrate the capsule and form a
delicate network between the secretory units and the initial parts of the duct
system.
The main excretory duct conveys the secretory product to one of the external
surfaces of the body.
Lobar ducts are are large branches of the main duct which extend to the lobes of
the gland.
Interlobar ducts are found in the connective tissue surrounding the lobes.
Interlobar ducts branch and give rise to Interlobular ducts, which are found in the
connective tissue surrounding the individual lobules of the gland. Branches of the
interlobular ducts enter the lobules and are now called Intralobular ducts.
The terminal branches of the duct system, which connect intralobular ducts with
the secretory units of the gland, are called Intercalated ducts.
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SPECIALISATIONS OF THE LATERAL AND BASAL SURFACES

Connective tissue is responsible for the structural integrity of most organs. It is absent from
epithelia and cell-to-cell. Specialisations in the lateral and basal parts of the cell membranes of
the epithelial cells mediate these functions.

Desmosomes

are specialisations of the lateral cell membranes which mediate cell adhesion.
Proteins inserted into the cell membrane of the adjacent cells form a protein"zipper"
linking the cells. Fibers of the cytoskeleton attach to the cytoplasmic side of
the desmosome to stabilise the area of contact.
Hemi-desmosomes mediate the attachment of the epithelial cells to the
basement membrane.
A group of glycoproteins (cadherins) inserted into the opposing plasma
membranes mediate cell-to-cell adhesion at desmosomes and also at the
adhesion
zones or patches mentioned below. Integrins, another group of
proteins, allow the cell
to attach to the matrix proteins of the basement membrane.

A zone of adhesion (zonula adherens)

is structurally not as well-characterised as the desmosomes. The zonula adherens typically

appears as a close and consistent apposition (15-20 NM) of the cell membranes close to the
apical cell surface and surrounding the entire cell. Fibres of the cytoskeleton insert into the
cytoplasmic side of this membrane specialisation.

Additional patches of adhesion (maculae adherentes),

which structurally resemble the zonula adherens, are found scattered over the
lateral surfaces of the epithelial cell.
A tight junction (zonula occludens) between epithelial cells mediates the isolation of
the interior of the body from the outside world. Proteins inserted into the cell membranes of
adjacent cells "stitch" the membranes of the cells together and epithelium covers the surface
of a tubular structure). Several
"rows of stitches" may be found.
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Epithelial Cell Junctions

Three types of cell junctions:
1
Occluding junction: link cells to form an impermeable
barrier. Also called tight junction
2
Anchoring junctions: link cells to provide mechanical
strength. They link the cytoskeleton of the cells both to
each other and to underlying tissues.
Desmosomes connect the intermediate filament
network of adjacent cells. Well developed in
stratified squamous epithelium of the skin.
Hemidesmosomes connect the intermediate filament
network of cells to extracellular matrix.
3
Communicating junctions: allow molecules to move
between cells. Cell to cell communication or gap junction
A junctional complex consists of several types of epithelial cell attachments.
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Membrane Junctions: Tight Junction

Integral proteins of
adjacent
cells fuse together
Completely encircle the
cell
and form an adhesion belt.
Form an impermeable
junction.
Common near apical
region

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Membrane Junctions: Desmosome

Linker proteins extend from

plaque like teeth of a zipper.
Intermediate filaments extend
across width of cell.

Common in
superficial layers of
skin; skin
peels after a sunburn
Reduces chance of
tearing, twisting,
stretching

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Membrane Junctions: Gap Junction

Connexon proteins are

trans-membrane
proteins.
Present in electrically
excitable tissues (heart,
smooth muscle)

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References
Young B., Lowe SL, et al, eds (2006) Wheaters
Functional Histology. 5th ed. Churchill Livingstone
Eroschenko, VP. (2009) di FIiores Atlas of Histology, 11th
ed. Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/microanatomy/epithelia/practice_p
ractical_exam.htm
http://www.lab.anhb.uwa.edu.au/mb140/
CAL packages: Anatomedia - General Anatomy

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Thank you!

syedbaharom@salam.uitm.edu.my
0355211287
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