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Statistics in Perspective

Chapter Twelve
Dr Nek Kamal Yeop Yunus
Faculty of business & economics
Sultan Idris Education University

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2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights

Statistics in Perspective
Chapter Twelve

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2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights

Approaches to Research
Educational Research is performed in one
of two ways:

1)
2)

Two or more groups are compared


Variables within one group are related

The data in a study may be either


quantitative or categorical.
Four different combinations of research are
possible. (see Figure 12.1)

All groups are made up of individual units


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Combinations of Data and Approaches


(Figure 12.1)

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A Difference that Doesnt Make a


Difference (Figure 12.2)

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Comparing Groups:
Quantitative Data

When comparing two or more groups using


quantitative data, researchers can compare them
through the following:

Frequency polygons
Calculation of averages
Calculations of spreads

Recommendations are made to perform the following:

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Prepare a frequency polygon of each groups score


Use these polygons to decide which measure of central
tendency is appropriate to calculate

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Frequency Polygons

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(Figure 12.3)

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90% Confidence Interval

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(Figure 12.4)

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Comparing Groups:
Quantitative Data (cont.)

Once the descriptive statistics have been


calculated, interpretations must follow.
Considerations of the following can assist
with interpreting data more clearly:

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Information based on known groups


Calculate the effect size of the groups
Use inferential statistics e.g. t-tests, ANOVA, etc.

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Interpretation of Correlation when Testing


Research Hypotheses
(Table 12.1)

Magnitude of r

Interpretation

.00 to .40

Of little practical importance except in


unusual circumstances; perhaps
of theoretical value.a

.41 to .60

Large enough to be of practical as well as


theoretical use.

.61 to .80

Very important, but rarely obtained in


educational research.

.81 to above

Possibly an error in calculation; if not, a


very sizable relationship.

When selecting a very few people from a large group, even correlations
this small may have a predictive value.
a

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Scatterplots with a Pearson r of .5


(Figure 12.5)

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Comparing Groups: Categorical Data

When using categorical data, groups may be


compared through the following methods:

Percentages/Proportions
Frequencies
Crossbreak Tables

A limitation of categorical data is that such


evaluations are even harder than with quantitative
data.
The use of the summary statistic known as
contingency coefficient is recommended but data
must be presented in crossbreak tables.

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Recap of Recommendations

Use graphic techniques


before calculating numerical
summary indices
Use both graphs and
summary indices to
interpret results of a study
Make use of external
criteria to assess the
magnitude of a relationship
Use professional consensus
when evaluating magnitude
of effect size
Consider using inferential
statistics

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Use tests of statistical


significance only to
evaluate generalizability
When random sampling has
not occurred, treat
probabilities as
approximations or crude
indices vs. precise values
Report confidence intervals
rather than significance
levels if possible
Use both parametric and
non-parametric techniques
to analyze data rather than
either one alone

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Any questions?

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Thank You

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