UPES

DEHRADUN

RESERVOIR

ENGINEERING

ROCK

LECTURE-04
13.09.10

POROSITY

Porosity
Porosity is defined as percentage or
fraction of void to the bulk volume of the
rock.
The void space in reservoir rocks is the
inter-granular spaces between the
sedimentary particles

Porosity relations
Let us consider a rock sample. Its
apparent volume, or total volume VT,
consists of a solid volume VS and a pore
volume Vp. The porosity is:

V pore
-------= V total

expressed in %

VP

-------VT

VT - VS
-------VT

=1-

VS
-------VT

Intera Porosity relations

The porosity of interest to reservoir specialist is
that which allows the fluids in the pores to
circulate, is the effective porosity u which
corresponds to the pores connected to each
other and to formation.
Also defined is the total porosity t,
corresponding to all the pores whether
interconnected or not, and to residual porosity
r, which only takes account of isolated pores.
t, = u + r

(r)
t, = u + r

(u)

Utility limits of porosity

The effective porosity of rocks varies

between less than 1% to 40%.
It is often stated that the porosity is:
(a) Low if
< 5%
(b) Mediocre if
5% < < 10 %
(c) Average if10%< < 20 %
(d) Good if
20%< < 30 %
(e) Excellent
> 30%

Remarks
A distinction is made between inter
-granular porosity, dissolution porosity
(as in lime stones for example) and
fracture porosity.
The fracture porosity related to rock
volume is often much less than 1%
As a rule, porosity decreases with
increasing depth.

Remarks
Effective porosity is basically used
for reserve calculation.
In moderate to high porosity rocks,
there is little difference in total and
effective porosity, but low porosity
value there has appreciable and
significant difference.

Porosity- related information

Types on the basis of origin:
Original porosity (primary)
Induced porosity (secondary)
Rocks having original porosity are more
uniform in their characteristics than rocks
with an induced porosity

Porosity- related information

Primary porosity
Is the space between grains that were not
compacted together completely
This is related to pores/voids between
sand grains or solid particles, as well as
space between sub layers and voids
created after decaying of organisms.
It is characterised by more or less uniform
distribution in the rock.
Found in sand and sand stones , clays ,
conglomerates.

Secondary porosity
Is the porosity created through alteration of rock,
commonly by processes such as dolomitization,
dissolution and fracturing
Developed as a result of diagenesis.
Connects the altered void spaces with fractures
resulting from tectonic disturbances.
Characterised with non uniform distribution and
it is not possible to establish any trend through
out the reservoir.

On the basis of connectivity

Absolute and effective porosity are
distinguished by their access capabilities
to reservoir fluids
Void spaces
contributes
to absolute
porosity

Permeable spaces
contributes
to effective
porosity

Art-micrograph of sandstone with oil

Factors effecting the porosity

Relative arrangement of grains

Shape and size of grains,
Grain size distribution
Presence and type of cementing materials
Solution and precipitation of salts
Porosity decreases with reduction in grain size.
It also decreases with large variation in grain
size as smaller grains occupy the pore spaces
between larger grains.

Packing Models
An attempt to determine the approx. Limits of
porosity values, Slichter and, later, Graton

& Fraser computed porosities for various

packing arrangements and given as :-

Parallel cylindrical pores

Irregular-packed spheres with different radii

Regular orthorhombic-packed
spheres
Regular rhombohedral-packed spheres
Regular cubic-packed spheres

Regular Cubic-Packed Spheres

Estimation of porosity accounting to this model:

Vp Vb Vm

1 0,476 or 47,6%
Vb
Vb
6
Vp - pore volume
Vb - bulk volume ( 2r)3
Vm - matrix volume (volume of bulk space occupied by the rock)
1 4
4

r 3 8 r 3
8 3
3

Regular Orthorhombic-Packed Spheres

Estimation of porosity accounting to this model:

Vp Vb Vm
Vm
4r 3

1 1
0,395 or 39,5%
3
Vb
Vb
Vb
12 3r
Vb - bulk volume 2r 2r h 4r 3 sin 60 4 3r 3
4
Vm - matrix volume r 3
3
h - height of the orthorhombic - packed spheres

Regular Rhombohedral-Packed Spheres

Estimation of porosity accounting to this model:

Vp Vb Vm
Vm
4r 3

1
1
0,26 or 26,0%
3
Vb
Vb
Vb
12 2r
Vb - bulk volume 2r 2r h 4 2r 3
4
Vm - matrix volume r 3
3
h - height in the tetrahedron 4r 2 2r 2 2r

Parallel Cylindrical
Pores

Estimation of porosity accounting to this model:

Vp r 2 n m

0,785 or 78,5%
Vb 2rn 2rm 4 r - pipe radius
m n - number of cylinders contained in the bulk volume
Vp - pore volume
Vb - bulk volume

Porosity Range
ROCK TYPE

POROSITY RANGE,%

Argillaceous shale

0.54

1.40

Clays

6.00

50

Sands

6.00

52

Sand stones

3.50

29

Carbonates

0.65

33

 Measurement of Porosity
In situ

Well Logs

Surface

Core Analysis

Informatics on porosity measurements

Essential property for intelligent estimate of

hydrocarbon reserves and the economic
aspect of oil and gas production.
The results of porosity measurement-by what
ever method are ,cannot exactly correspond to
in situ conditions due to:
A) Possible relaxation of pores upon release of over
burden and fluid pressure
B) The hydraulic and mechanical actions of the coring
process.

In situ techniques
Several logging tools like - Electrical, Nuclear,
Density, or Sonic methods are used to estimare
porosity.
Resolution is effective around the well bore.
Measurements need to be confirmed / calibrated
against porosities measured at surface
conditions,
The relationship developed apply only to those
surface conditions.

Core Analysis
Following equation is used:

On a sample of generally simple geometric form,

two of the three values Vp , Vs and VT are therefore
determined.
The standard sample (plug) is cylindrical, Its cross
section measures about 4 to 12 cm 2 and its length is
varies between 2 to 5 cm.
The plugs are first washed and dried.
The measuring instruments are coupled to
microcomputers to process the results rapidly.

A. Measurement of VT

(a) Measurement of the buoyancy exerted by

mercury on the sample immersed in it (IFP)
The apparatus has a frame C connected
by a rod to a float F immersed in a beaker
containing mercury.
A reference index R is Fixed to the rod. A
plate B is suspended from the plate.
(a) First measurement: the sample
is
VT
placed on plate B with a weight P1 to
bring R in,in contact with the mercury.
(b) Second measurement: the sample is
placed under the hooks of float F, and the
weight P2 is placed on plate B to bring R
in to contact with the mercury.
If Hg is the density of at measurement
temperature.
Then: VT

APPARATUS

(b) Use of positive

displacement pump
VT
Method:
Without a sample using the piston,
mercury is pushed to mark, indicated on the reference valve (V).
The vernier of the pump is set at zero.
With the sample in place, the mercury is again pushed to same
mark. The vernier of the pump is read and the volume VT is
obtained.
The measurement is only valid if mercury does not
penetrate into the pores.
The accuracy is 0.01 cm3.

B. Measurement of VT
(c) Measurement:
The foregoing methods are unsuitable if the rock
contains fissures or macro pores, because mercury
will penetrate into them.
Here a piece of cylindrical cores diameter d and
height h can be measured using sliding caliper:

Measurement of VS
Measurement of the buoyancy exerted on the sample
by a solvent with which it is saturated.
The method is most accurate but difficult
and time consuming to achieve complete
saturation. The operations are normally
VS by immersion method
standardized.
The difference between the weights of sample in air (P air)
and the solvent in which it is immersed (P immersed) gives VS as :

Measurement of VS

Use of compression chamber and Boyle law

Regardless of specific apparatus used i.e. singe cell or double
chamber, the sample is subjected to known initial pressure by
gas, which was originally at atmospheric pressure.
The pressure is then changed by varying the volume of gas in
chamber.
The variation in volume and pressure are measured by using
Boyles law.

P1 V1 = P2 V2
The equipments using single cell and double are shown in
next slide.

Measurement of VS
Use of compression chamber and Boyle law
Use of single cell

Use of double cell

4,5

3
1

3
1 is chamber for core
2 is core
3 is volume plunger
4 is pressure guage

2
1 is chamber for core
2 is constant volume chamber
3 is core
4 & 5 is pressure manometers
6 is source of gas

C. Determination of VP
The pore volume can be measured directly, by
measuring the volume of air in the pores, by
weighing a liquid filling the pores, or by mercury
injection
a. Measurement of air in the pores :
The mercury positive displacement pump is used
for this purpose. After measuring VT ,the value of
the sample core holder is closed and the air in the
interconnected pores is expanded. The variation in
volume and pressure are ensured using Boyles
law.

b. Measurement by weighing a liquid filling

the effective pores
This liquid is often brine
c. Measurement by mercury injection
In this case the mercury should never the
interconnected pores. The value obtained
can be effectively used .

Special Method :Fluid Summation

The method involves the analysis of a FRESH
sample containing water, oil and gas.
The distribution of these fluids is not the same
as in the reservoir. because the core has been
invaded by the mud filtrate and decomposed
when pulled out.
Still/but the sum of the volumes of these three
fluids, for a unit volume of rock, gives the
effective porosity of the sample.
The total volume is determined by mercury
displacement pump.

Special Method :
Relation of Fluid Summation and porosity
(1) VP = Vw + VO + VG
(1) Sw + SO + SG = 100%

Sw = Vw / VP

SO = Vo/ VP

SG = VG/ VP

What is new
NMR SPECROSCOY
By measuring the proton signal strength at time zero
compared to proton signal of known standard.
In addition to bulk measurements of core porosity , it is
also useful to produce porosity images in order to map
out details fluids like kind, location, porosity changes/
variationtions, drilling mud invasion, formation anomaly
etc.
* The technique is not applicable to shaly sand stone due
to resolution problems.
Example analysis is presented / compared:

NMR SPECROSCOY
Rock
Sand stone1
Lime stone1
Dolomite1
Dolomite2
Sand stone2
Sand stone3

Weight
Porosity
22.7
13.6
16.1
12.9
20.4
18.7

NMR
Porosity
22.4
13.0
16.0
13.2
19.6
17.8

% Error
-1.3
-4.4
-0.6
+2.3
3.9
4.8

CT Scan Analysis

Capillary
pressure

Sample

Radius(mm)

I-5-32

1.3

1,107.69

2.9

496.55

1.5

960.00

1.1

1,309.09

1.4

1,028.57

1.2

1,200.00

2.2

654.55

total

11.6

Sf T(dyne/cm^2)

72

Avg Radius
1.66

Avg cap pr.

868.97
0.0126 psi

Computer Assisted Petrographic

Analysis (CAP)

500

500

Allows petrographer to make quantitative measurements of textural and

mineralogic properties

Grain size distribution, grain shape (angularity), grain contact statistics,

grain perimeter/porosity perimeter measurements

Porosity type/size/and distribution; framework grain and authigenic phase

mineralogy and distribution

Middle Miocene Sandstones

Offshore Texas Shelf - Corsair Trend
Brazos, Mustang Island, Matagorda Island
0

Porosity-Depth Trends Controlling Factors:

Sand texture, composition
Compaction - VES history
Burial history - temperature,
time
Cementation - fluid flow history
Secondary porosity

5000

Depth (feet)

Reservoir Quality Prediction

for Sandstones

10000

15000

20000
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

250

Porosity (% BV)

Allie 1984; Taylor 1987, 1998

10,133 ft

10,136 ft

10,139 ft

Tc

Mt
Mt slumped

CORE 1,
SAND 571

Mt

Tc-Td
>> Tb
& Mt

Tc+Mt

Tc - Tb

1000

Tc ( to SMD?
Mt > Tc

1b

Tc-Tb

Mt

Tc-Mt

Tc

13,667.00 ft

MT?

Mt
MSD (2a.)

Mt slumped

13,670.00 ft

Tb

13,673.00 ft
S-Ta?

Mt

Tc? Slumped

Ta

10,139 ft

10,136 ft

Ta

Tc

10,142 ft
more
abundant
mud
intraclast
content
Ta

CORE 6,
SAND 767

MT?

Ta-S?

1000

ISE, 2002

13,670.00 ft

13,673.00 ft

13,676.00 ft

Conclusions

(porosity) is a measure of the storage capacity given as that is capable of

holding fluids, Mathematically ,it may be given as

Absolute porosity
Ratio of the total pore space in the rock to that of the bulk volume
Effective porosity
Is the percentage of interconnected pore space with respect to the bulk volume

original porosity
induced porosity

is that developed in the deposition of the material,

is that developed by some geologic process subsequent to
deposition of the rock

Example 1
The grain volume of rock sample of 1.5 dia and 5.6 cm length was found to be
56.24 cc and bulk volume of the sample using mercury displacement method
was measured 73.80 cc.
If dry weight of the sample is149.88 gms, find the grain density.
Calculate the pore volume and porosity of the sample.

effective porosity is the value that is used in all reservoir engineering

calculations
important application of the effective porosity is its use in determining
the original hydrocarbon volume in place

Application of Effective porosity

Determining the original hydrocarbon volume in place
For a reservoir with an areal extent of A acres and an average thickness of h feet
Bulk volume = 43,560 Ah, ft3 OR 7,758 Ah, bbl
The reservoir pore volume PV in cubic feet gives: PV = 43,560 Ah, ft3
The reservoir pore volume PV in cubic feet gives: PV = 7,758 Ah, bbl
Example 2
An oil reservoir exists at its bubble-point pressure of 3000 psia and temperature
of 160F. The oil has an API gravity of 42 and gas-oil ratio of 600 scf/STB. The
specific gravity of the solution gas is 0.65. The following additional data are also
available
Reservoir area = 640 acres
Average thickness = 10 ft
Connate water saturation = 0.25
Effective porosity = 15%
Calculate the initial oil in place in STB.

Example 1
*Pore volume = Bulk volume-Grain volume
=73.80 56.24=17,56 cc
*Porosity,% =(Pore volume/Grain volume) x 100
=(17.56/73.80)X100 = 23.79%
*Grain density=Dry weight of sample/Grain volume
= 149.88/56.24
= 2.665 gms/cc
Example 2
Step 1. Determine the specific gravity of the stock-tank oil
as 0.8156
Step 2. Calculate the initial oil formation volume factor as 1.306 bbl /STB

Step 3. Calculate the pore = 7758 (640) (10) (0.15) = 7,447,680 bbl
Step 4. Calculate the initial oil in place.
Initial oil in place = 12,412,800 (1 - 0.25)/1.306 = 4,276,998 STB

Average reservoir porosity

Bedding planes show large variations in porosity vertically and arithmetic
average porosity or the thickness - weighted average porosity is used to
describe the average reservoir porosity.
If porosity in one portion of the reservoir to be greatly different from that in
another area due to sedimentation conditions, the areal weighted average
or the volume-weighted average porosity is used to characterize the
average rock porosity.
averaging techniques are expressed mathematically in the following forms:
Arithmetic average
Thickness-weighted average
Areal-weighted average
Volumetric-weighted average
Example
Calculate the arithmetic average and thickness-weighted average from the
following measurements

Solution

POROSITY ?

Porosity = void volume soil volume

Porosity = 0.3 cubic meters 1.0 cubic meters
Porosity = 0.3