VEHICLE POWER PLANTS

Ch-9-10-W-15-16-17

CR and Hybrid engines

%
Future Trends in AFV
Engines

 Concept and requirement of low CR engines

Low CR with auxiliary inlet manifold heating
Design calculations
Exhaust re-circulation
Calculations for the basic design
Electric vehicles
Hybrid electric engines

Solution to Problems of Turbocharging an NA engine

AFVs are highly boosted to achieve maximum power
output; running at higher temperatures and pressure.
To overcome the above problems, following steps can be
taken:1. Reduce Compression ratio (CR)- It reduces the peak
pressure and temperature but leads to lower th.
2. Boost now at lower P & T to get maximum power o/p.

PRESSURE CHARGING: LOWERING THE CR

-

In a hot loaded engine, lowering the CR much below normal will

ensure compression ignition.

But low CR will introduce the problem at cold start and, perhaps
at sustained idle.

To cater for the above, artificial charge warming may be

necessary; by at least four methods:1.
2.
3.
4.

VCR Engine.
Manifold heating.
Hyper bar system.
Exhaust recirculation.

MANIFOLD HEATING

Fuel sprayed into the ingoing

air charge and igniting it electri
-cally if engine temperatures are
low enough to make compression
ignition uncertain.
At high load conditions, this
extra fueling is automatically
turned off.

EXHAUST RECIRCULATION

- Allows some of the exhaust gases

to re-circulate into the engine intake.
- Done by advancing the valve-timing
of the engine during cranking. As a
result the not-yet-firing engine
compresses its air charge on the
compression stroke more than it
expands it during expansion.; so it
pumps back hot air back into its own
inlet.
- This can achieve light load running
indefinitely, but achieving of cold
start is less obvious.
6

ELECTRIC
VEHICLES

Early days
The first electric vehicles of the 1830s used non-rechargeable batteries. Half
a century was to elapse before batteries had developed sufficiently to be
used in commercial electric vehicles.
By the end of the 19th century, with mass production of rechargeable
batteries, electric vehicles became fairly widely used. Private cars, though
rare, were quite likely to be electric, as were other vehicles such as taxis.

An electric New York taxi

from about 1901 is
shown, with Lily Langtry
alongside.
Indeed if performance
was required, the electric
cars were preferred to
their internal combustion
or steam powered rivals.
Low CR-Hybrid engines-modern
trands
Prof
(Col) GC Mishra

Early days..
Shown below is the first car to exceed the mile a minute speed (60mph) when
the Belgium racing diver Camille Jenatzy, driving the electric vehicle known as
La Jamais Contente,1 set a new land speed record of 106 kph (65.7mph). This
also made it the first car to exceed 100 kph.

The relative decline of electric vehicles after 1910

The reasons for the greater success to date of IC engine vehicles are easily
understood when one compares the specific energy of petroleum fuel to
that of batteries.
The specific energy of fuels for IC engines varies, but is around 9000
Whkg1, whereas the specific energy of a lead acid battery is around 30
Whkg1.
Once the efficiency of the IC engine, gearbox and transmission (typically
around 20%) for a petrol engine is accounted for, this means that 1800
Whkg1 of useful energy (at the gearbox shaft) can be obtained from petrol.
With an electric motor efficiency of 90% only 27Whkg1 of useful energy (at
the motor shaft) can be obtained from a lead acid battery.
To illustrate the point further, 4.5 litres (1 gallon) of petrol with a mass of
around 4 kg will give a typical motor car a range of 50 km. To store the
same amount of useful electric energy requires a lead acid battery with a
mass of about 270 kg. To double the energy storage and hence the range
of the petrol engine vehicle requires storage for a further 4.5 litres of fuel
with a mass of around 4 kg only, whereas to do the same with a lead acid
battery vehicle requires an additional battery mass of about 270 kg. This is
illustrated in Figure
10

Comparison of
energy from petrol
and lead acid
battery

For lead acid batteries to have

the effective energy capacity of
45 litres (10 gallons) of petrol, a
Low CR-Hybrid engines-modern
staggering 2.7 tons of batteries
trands
Prof
would be needed!
(Col) GC Mishra

11

 Another major problem that arises with batteries is the time it takes to
recharge them- normally several hours, required to re-charge a lead acid
battery (new batteries has been reduced to one hour), whereas 45 litres of
petrol can be put into a vehicle in approximately one minute.
Yet another limiting parameter with electric vehicles is that batteries are
expensive and limited life (max. 5 years).
Since the 19th century ways of overcoming the limited energy storage of
batteries have been used. The first is supplying the electrical energy via
supply rails, the best example being the trolley bus. This has been widely
used during the 20th century and allows quiet non-polluting buses to be
used in towns and cities. When away from the electrical supply lines the
buses can run from their own batteries.
Early on in the development of electric vehicles the concept was developed
of the hybrid vehicle, in which an IC engine driving a generator is used in
conjunction with one or more electric motors.
The hybrid car is one of the most promising ideas which could revolutionise
the impact of electric vehicles.
The Toyota Prius (Figure) is a modern electric hybrid that, it is said, has
more than doubled the number of electric cars on the roads. There is
considerable potential for the development of electric hybrids and the idea of
12
a hybrid shows considerable promise for future development.

Uses for which battery electric vehicles have remained popular

Despite the above problems there have always been uses for electric vehicles since
the early part of the 20th century.
They produce no exhaust emissions in their immediate environment,
They are inherently quiet (ideal for environments such as warehouses, inside
buildings and on golf courses, where pollution and noise will not be tolerated).
They also retain their efficiencies in start-stop driving, when an IC engine becomes
very inefficient and polluting.
One popular application of battery/electric drives is for mobility devices for the elderly
and physically handicapped.

13

 Of the technical developments, the battery is an area where there have

been improvements, although these have not been as great as many people
would have wished.
Commercially available batteries such nickel cadmium or nickel metal
hydride can carry at best about double the energy of lead acid
batteries, and the high temperature Sodium nickel chloride or Zebra
battery nearly three times.
This is a useful improvement, but still does not allow the design of vehicles
with a long range.
In practice, the available rechargeable battery with the highest specific
energy is the lithium polymer battery which has a specific energy about
three times that of lead acid.
This is still expensive although there are signs that the price will fall
considerably in the future.
Zinc air batteries have potentially seven times the specific energy of lead
acid batteries and fuel cells show considerable promise.
There have been increasing attempts to run vehicles from photovoltaic
cells.
14

Types of Electric Vehicle in Use Today

There are effectively six basic types of electric vehicle, which may be classed
as follows.
1. Traditional battery electric vehicle, which is the type that usually springs to
mind when people think of electric vehicles.
2. The hybrid electric vehicle, which combines a battery and an IC engine, is
very likely to become the most common type in the years ahead.
3. Vehicles which use replaceable fuel as the source of energy using either
fuel cells or metal air batteries.
4. Vehicles supplied by power lines.
5. Electric vehicles which use energy directly from solar radiation.
6. Vehicles that store energy by alternative means such as flywheels or super
capacitors, which are nearly always hybrids using some other source of
power as well.

15

Conceptual illustration of a general EV configuration.

16

Performance of EVs
Traction Motor Characteristics
Variable-speed electric motor drives usually have the characteristics shown in Figure.
At the low-speed region (less than the base speed as marked in Figure), the motor
has a constant torque.
In the high-speed region (higher than the base speed), the motor has a constant
power. This characteristic is usually represented by a speed ratio x, defined as the
ratio of its maximum speed to its base speed.
In low-speed operation, voltage supply
to the motor increases with the
increase of speed through the
electronic converter while the flux is
kept constant.
At the point of base speed, the voltage
of the motor reaches the source
voltage. After the base speed, the
motor voltage is kept constant and the
flux
is
weakened,
dropping
hyperbolically with increasing speed.
Hence,
its
torque
also
drops
hyperbolically with increasing speed

17

 Figure shows the torquespeed profiles of a 60 kW motor with different speed ratios x
(x = 2, 4, and 6).
It is clear that with a long constant power region, the maximum torque of the motor can
be significantly increased, and hence vehicle acceleration and gradeability
performance can be improved and the transmission can be simplified.
However, each type of motor inherently has its limited maximum speed ratio. For
example, a permanent magnet motor has a small x (<2) because of the difficulty of field
weakening due to the presence of the permanent magnet. Switched reluctance motors
may achieve x > 6 and induction motors about x = 4.

18

Tractive Effort and Transmission Requirement

The tractive effort developed by a traction motor on driven wheels and the vehicle speed
are expressed as

where
Tm and Nm are the motor torque output in N m and speed in rpm, respectively,
ig is the gear ratio of transmission,
i0 is the gear ratio of final drive,
t is the efficiency of the whole driveline from the motor to the driven wheels, and
rd is the radius of the driven wheels.

19

Tractive effort versus vehicle speed

with a traction motor of x = 2 and
three-gear transmission.

20

Vehicle Performance
Basic vehicle performance includes maximum cruising speed, gradeability, and
acceleration.
The maximum speed of a vehicle can be easily found by the intersection point of the
tractive effort curve with the resistance curve (rolling resistance plus aerodynamic
drag), in the tractive effort versus vehicle speed diagram shown in previous Figures.
In this case, the maximum vehicle speed is determined by the maximum speed of the
traction motor as

Where, Nm max is the allowed maximum rpm of the traction motor and ig min is the
minimum gear ratio of the transmission (highest gear).
Gradeability is determined by the net tractive effort of the vehicle, Ftnet (Ftnet = Ft Fr
Fw), as shown in previous Figures.
The gradeability at mid- and high speeds is smaller than that at low speeds. The
maximum grade that the vehicle can overcome at the given speed can be calculated
d = Ft Fw/Mg is called the vehicle performance factor
and fr is the tire rolling resistance coefficient.
21

Concept of Hybrid Electric Drive Trains

Basically, any vehicle power train is required to
(1) develop sufficient power to meet the demands of vehicle performance,
(2) carry sufficient energy onboard to support the vehicle driving a sufficient range,
(3) demonstrate high efficiency, and
(4) emit few environmental pollutants.
()Broadly, a vehicle may have more than one power train. Here, the power train is
defined as the combination of the energy source and the energy converter or power
source,
()such as the gasoline (or diesel)heat engine system, the hydrogenfuel cellelectric
motor system, the chemical batteryelectric motor system, and so on.
()A vehicle that has two or more power trains is called a hybrid vehicle. A hybrid
vehicle with an electrical power train is called an HEV. The drive train of a vehicle is
defined as the aggregation of all the power trains.
()A hybrid vehicle drive train usually consists of no more than two power trains. More
than two power trains will make the drive train very complicated.
()For the purpose of recapturing braking energy that is dissipated in the form of heat
in conventional IC engine vehicles, a hybrid drive train usually has a power train that
allows energy to flow bidirectionally.
()The other one is either bidirectional or unidirectional.
22

Conceptual illustration of a hybrid electric drive train.

A hybrid drive train can supply its power to the load by a selective power train. There are
many available patterns of operating two power trains to meet the load requirement:
1. Power train 1 alone delivers its power to the load.
2. Power train 2 alone delivers its power to the load.
3. Both power train 1 and power train 2 deliver their power to the load simultaneously.
4. Power train 2 obtains power from the load (regenerative braking).
5. Power train 2 obtains power from power train 1.
6. Power train 2 obtains power from
power train 1 and the load
simultaneously.
7. Power train 1 delivers power to the
load
and
to
power
train
2
simultaneously.
8. Power train 1 delivers its power to
power train 2, and power train 2
delivers its power to the load.
9. Power train 1 delivers its power to
the load, and the load delivers the
power to power train 2.

23

Classifications of hybrid EVs.

(a) Series (electrically coupling),
(b) Parallel (mechanical coupling),
(c) seriesparallel (mechanical and electrical coupling), and
(d) Complex (mechanical and electrical coupling).

Low CR-Hybrid engines-modern

trands
Prof
(Col) GC Mishra

24

Two-shaft configuration.

25

Pretransmission single-shaft torque combination parallel

hybrid electric drive train.

26

 Honda has been installing 24 NiMH 12 V batteries in its electric cars for export to the
US, and Toyota has been using the same type of battery in its electric vehicles. Since
1971 Toyota has developed the TownAce, an electric van, the Crown Majesta Saloon,
the RAV4 and e-com, the last mentioned being a mini electric commuter vehicle.
The drive train of the RAV4 EV, Fig. 20.1, consists of the battery pack, the electric
motor and the control pack. Although it is a cumbersome installation as compared with
that of an internal combustion engine powered vehicle, at least it has neither an
exhaust system nor a conventional transmission: the electric motor transmits its drive
through a simple reduction gear to the road wheels. By virtue of optimisation of every
aspect of this drive train, and the use of regenerative braking, a range of 124 miles per
charge has, it is claimed, been attained.
Nissans Altra represents a major advance. It is powered by a watercooled, permanent
magnet, synchronous electric motor developing 62 kW and 159 Nm torque at 13 000
rev/min. A key feature of this motor is the use of the highly efficient nodimium-ironboron (Nd-Fe-B) magnet. The outcome is a motor weighing 39 kg giving a power weight
ratio of 1.6 W/kg. Incidentally, its speed is considerably higher than the average, which
is 8000 to 9000 rev/min.
The lithium-iron battery pack was developed by Sony. Its nominal output is 345 V from
12 modules each comprising 8 cells. The output from each cell is 36 V fully charged
and 20 V discharged. With a gross weight of 350 kg, the energy density is 90 Wh/kg
and power density 300 W/kg. A nominal life of 1200 cycles, based on 5% reduction in
energy density, is claimed, but lives in excess of 2000 cycles without significant further
loss of efficiency have been obtained during tests.
27

28

Hydrogen fuel cells:

the power of tomorrow
BY GC Mishra

29

30

Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Clean tomorrow

BY
Prof (Col) Girish Chandra Mishra
Defence University College of Engineering

31

Fuel Cell Basics

32

Electrolysis
What does this have to do with fuel cells?

By providing energy from a battery, water (H2O) can be dissociated into the
diatomic molecules of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2).
33

Fuel Cell Basics

Put electrolysis in reverse.
The familiar process of electrolysis requires work to proceed, if the process is
put in reverse, it should be able to do work for us spontaneously.
The most basic black box representation of a fuel cell in action is shown
below:
work

O2
H2

H2O

fuel
cell
heat
34

Electrolysis and the Reverse

(a) The electrolysis of water. The water is separated into hydrogen

and oxygen by the passage of an electric current-Electrolysis.
35 are
(b) A small current flows. The oxygen and hydrogen

Fuel Cell Basics

Another way of looking at the fuel cell is to say that the hydrogen
fuel is being burnt or combusted in the simple reaction
2H2 + O2 2H2O
However, instead of heat energy being liberated, electrical energy is
produced.
The experiment shown in Figures makes a reasonable demonstration
of
the basic principle of the fuel cell, but the currents produced are
very small.
The main reasons for the small current are:1. The low contact area between the gas, the electrode,
and the electrolyte basically just a small ring where the
electrode emerges from the electrolyte.
36 the electrolyte
2. The large distance between the electrodes

Fuel Cell Basics

To overcome these problems,
the electrodes are usually
made flat, with a thin layer of
electrolyte as in Figure.
The
structure
of
the
electrode is porous so that
both the electrolyte from one
side and the gas from the
other can penetrate it. This is
to
give
the
maximum
possible contact between the
electrode, the electrolyte,
and the gas.

Basic cathodeelectrolyte
anode construction of a
fuel cell

37

Fuel Cell Basics-Acid Electrolyte Fuel Cell (as used by Grove)

At the anode of an acid electrolyte fuel cell, the hydrogen gas
ionizes, releasing electrons and creating H+ ions (or protons).
2H2 4H+ + 4e
This reaction releases energy. At the cathode, oxygen reacts with
electrons taken from the electrode, and H+ ions from the
electrolyte, to form water.
O2 + 4e + 4H+ 2H2O

38

Fuel Cell Basics-Acid Electrolyte Fuel Cell (as used by Grove)..

Clearly, for both these reactions to proceed continuously,

electrons produced at the anode must pass through an electrical
circuit to the cathode.
Also, H+ ions must pass through the electrolyte. An acid is a fluid
with free H+ ions, and so serves this purpose very well.
Certain polymers can also be made to contain mobile H + ions.
These materials are called proton exchange membranes, as an
H+ ion is also a proton.
It should be noted that the electrolyte must only allow H+ ions to
pass through it, and not electrons. Otherwise, the electrons
would go through the electrolyte, not a round the external circuit,
and all would be lost.

39

Fuel Cell Basics-Alkaline Electrolyte Fuel Cell

In an alkaline electrolyte fuel cell the overall reaction is the
same, but the reactions at each electrode are different.
In an alkali, hydroxyl (OH) ions are available and mobile. At the
anode, these react with hydrogen, releasing energy and electrons,
and producing water. At the cathode, oxygen reacts with electrons
taken from the electrode, and water in the electrolyte, forming new
OH ions.

40

Fuel Cell Basics

Thermodynamics

H2O(l)

H2(g) + O2(g)

Other gases in the fuel and air inputs (such as N 2 and CO2) may be present,
but as they are not involved in the electrochemical reaction, they do not need
to be considered in the energy calculations.
Table 1 Thermodynamic properties at 1Atm and 298K
Enthalpy (H)
Entropy (S)

H2
0
130.68 J/molK

O2
0
205.14 J/molK

H2O (l)
-285.83 kJ/mol
69.91 J/molK

Enthalpy is defined as the energy of a system plus the work needed to

make room for it in an environment with constant pressure.
Entropy can be considered as the measure of disorganization of a
system, or as a measure of the amount of energy that is unavailable to
do work.
41

Fuel Cell Basics: Thermodynamics

Enthalpy of the chemical reaction using Hess Law:
H = Hreaction =

Hproducts

= (1mol)(-285.83 kJ/mol)

Hreactants
(0)

= -285.83 kJ
Entropy of chemical reaction:
S = Sreaction
= Sproducts Sreactants
= [(1mol)(69.91 J/molK)] [(1mol)(130.68 J/molK) + (mol)(205.14 J/molK)]
= -163.34 J/K
Heat gained by the system:
Q= TS
= (298K)(-163.34 J/K)
= -48.7 kJ

42

Fuel Cell Basics: Thermodynamics

The Gibbs free energy is then calculated by:
G =
H
TS
= (-285.83 kJ) (-48.7 kJ)
= -237 kJ
The external work done on the reaction, assuming reversibility and constant T
W = G
The work done on the reaction by the environment is:
W = G = -237 kJ
The heat transferred to the reaction by the environment is:
Q = TS = -48.7 kJ
More simply stated:
The chemical reaction can do 237 kJ of work and produces 48.7 kJ
of heat to the environment.
43

Fuel Cell Basics

Components

1. Anode: Where the fuel reacts or "oxidizes", and releases electrons.

2. Cathode: Where oxygen (usually from the air) "reduction" occurs.
3. Electrolyte: A chemical compound that conducts ions from one
electrode to the other inside a fuel cell.
4. Catalyst: A substance that causes or speeds a chemical reaction
without itself being affected.
5. Cogeneration: The use of waste heat to generate electricity.
Harnessing otherwise wasted heat boosts the efficiency of powergenerating systems.
6. Reformer: A device that extracts pure hydrogen from hydrocarbons.
7. Direct Fuel Cell: A type of fuel cell in which a hydrocarbon fuel is fed
directly to the fuel cell stack, without requiring an external "reformer" to
generate hydrogen.
44

Fuel Cell Basics

Putting it together.

45

Fuel Cell Basics

Putting it together.

46

Fuel Cell Basics

Putting it together.

Low CR-Hybrid engines-modern

trands
Prof
(Col) GC Mishra

47

48

 Fuel cells come in a variety of sizes. Individual fuel cells produce

very small amounts of electricity, about 0.7 volts, so cells are
"stacked", or placed in series or parallel circuits, to increase the
voltage and current output to meet an applications power
generation requirements.
In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce
water,
heat and, depending on the fuel source,
very small amounts of nitrogen dioxide and
other emissions.

The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 4060%, or up to 85% efficient if waste heat is captured for use.
49

What Limits the Current?

At the anode, hydrogen reacts, releasing energy. However, just
because energy is released, it does not mean that the reaction
proceeds at an unlimited rate. The reaction has the classical
energy form shown in Figure.
Although energy is released, the activation energy must be
supplied to get over the energy hill. If the probability of a molecule
having enough energy is low, then the reaction will only proceed
slowly. Except at very high temperatures, this is indeed the case for
fuel cell reactions.

50

What Limits the Current?..

The three main ways of dealing with the slow reaction rates are:1. The use of catalysts,
2. Raising the temperature,
3. Increasing the electrode area.
The first two can be applied to any chemical reaction. However, the
third is special to fuel cells and is very important.
If we take a reaction such as that of Alkaline fuel cell, we see that
fuel gas and OH ions from the electrolyte are needed, as well as
the necessary
activation energy. Furthermore, this coming together of H 2 fuel and
OH ions must take place on the surface of the electrode, as
the electrons produced must be removed.

51

What Limits the Current?...

This reaction, involving fuel or oxygen (usually a gas), with the
electrolyte (solid or liquid) and the electrode, is sometimes
called the three phase contact.
The bringing together of these three things is a very important
issue in fuel cell design.
The rate at which the reaction happens will be proportional to
the area of the electrode. Electrode area is such a vital issue
that the performance of a fuel cell design is often quoted in
terms of the current per cm2.
However, the straightforward area (l b) is not the only issue.
The electrode is made highly porous. This has the effect of
greatly increasing the effective surface area. Modern fuel cell
electrodes have a microstructure that gives them surface areas
that can be hundreds or even thousands of times their
straightforward l b (See Figure on next slide.).
In addition to these surface area considerations, the electrodes
52
may have to incorporate a catalyst and endure high

TEM image of fuel cell catalyst. The

black specks are the catalyst particles
finely
divided over a carbon support. The
structure clearly has a large surface
area. (Reproduced by kind permission
of Johnson Matthey Plc.)

53

Connecting Cells in
Series The Bipolar Plate

54

Connecting Cells in Series the Bipolar Plate

The voltage of a fuel cell is quite small, about 0.7V when drawing a
useful current. This means that to produce a useful voltage many
cells have to be connected in series. Such a collection of fuel cells in
series is known as a stack.
The most obvious way
to do this is by simply
connecting the edge
of each anode to the
cathode of the next
cell, all along the line,
as
in
Figure
(For
simplicity,
this
diagram ignores the
problem of supplying
gas to the electrodes.)

55

Connecting Cells in Series the Bipolar

Plate..
The problem with this method is that the electrons have to flow
across the face of the electrode to the current collection point at
the edge.
The electrodes might be quite good conductors, but if each cell is
only operating at about 0.7V, even a small voltage drop is
important.
Therefore, unless the current flows are very low, and the electrode
is a particularly good conductor, or very small, this method is not
used.
A much better method of cell interconnection is to use a bipolar
plate.
This makes connections all over the surface of one cathode and
the anode of the next cell (hence bipolar);
At the same time, the bipolar plate serves as a means of feeding
56
oxygen to the cathode and fuel gas to the anode.

Connecting Cells in Series the Bipolar

Plate

Single cell, with end plates

for taking current from all
over the face of the
electrodes,
and also supplying gas to the
whole electrode.

The grooved plates are made of a good conductor such as

graphite, or stainless steel.
57

Connecting Cells in
Series The Bipolar
Plate.

Two bipolar plates of very

simple design. There are
horizontal grooves on one
side
and vertical grooves on
the other.

Bipolar plates (or, cell interconnects) have channels cut in them

so that the gases can flow over the face of the electrodes. At the
same time, they are made in such a way that they make a good
58
electrical contact with the surface of each alternate
electrode

A three-cell stack showing

how bipolar plates connect
the anode of one cell to the
cathode of its neighbour.

59

The design of the bipolar plate is not simple.

If the electrical contact is to be optimised, the contact points
should be as large as possible, but this would mitigate the good
gas flow over the electrodes.
If the contact points have to be small, at least they should be
frequent. However, this makes the plate more complex, difficult,
and expensive to manufacture, as well as fragile.
Ideally the bipolar plate should be as thin as possible, to minimise
electrical resistance and to make the fuel cells stack small.
However, this makes the channels for the gas flow narrow, which
means it is more difficult to pump the gas round the cell. This
sometimes has to be done at a high rate, especially when using
air instead of pure oxygen on the cathode.
In the case of low-temperature fuel cells, the circulating air has to
evaporate and carry away the product water. In addition, there
usually have to be further channels through the
bipolar plate to
60
carry a cooling fluid.

Gas Supply and Cooling

The arrangement shown in previous Figure has been simplified to
show the basic principle of the bipolar plate. However, the problem
of gas supply and of preventing leaks means that in reality the
design is somewhat more complex.
Because the electrodes must be porous (to allow the gas in), they
would allow the gas to leak out of their edges. The result is that the
edges of the electrodes must be sealed. Sometimes this is done by
making the electrolyte somewhat larger than one or both of the
electrodes and fitting a sealing gasket around each electrode, as
shown in below.

The construction of
anode/electrolyte/cathode
assemblies with edge
seals. These prevent the
gases leaking in or out
through the edges of the
porous electrodes.
61

Three-cell stack, with external manifolds.

The electrodes now have edge seals.

62

The arrangement of previous Figures and here is used in some

systems. It is called external manifolding. It has the advantage of
simplicity. However, it has two major disadvantages:1.It is difficult to cool the
system. In practice, this
type of cell has to be cooled
by the reactant air passing
over the cathodes. This
means air has to be supplied
at a higher rate than
demanded
by
the
cell
chemistry; sometimes this is
sufficient to cool the cell, but
it is a waste of energy.
2.Increased probability of
leakage of the reactant
gases-the gasket round the
edge of the electrodes is not
evenly pressed down at the
point where there is a

63

64

Types of Fuel Cells

65

There are many types of fuel

cells, but they all consist of
1. Anode (negative side),
2. Cathode (positive side) and
3. Electrolyte that allows charges
to

move

between

the

two

sides of the fuel cell.

Electrons are drawn from the
anode to the cathode through an
external circuit,
producing
direct
current
electricity.
As the main difference among
fuel cell types is the electrolyte,
fuel cells are classified by the

66

Types of Fuel Cells

The five most common types:

Alkali
Molten Carbonate
Phosphoric Acid
Proton Exchange Membrane
Solid Oxide

67

Types of Fuel Cells

SOFC

68

Alkali Fuel Cell

Compressed hydrogen and oxygen fuel
Potassium hydroxide (KOH) electrolyte
~70% efficiency
150C - 200C operating temp.
300W to 5kW output

Requires pure hydrogen fuel and platinum catylist ($$)

Liquid filled container corrosive leaks

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Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)

carbonate salt electrolyte

60 80% efficiency
~650C operating temp.
cheap nickel electrode catalyst
up to 2 MW constructed, up to
100 MW designs exist
Figure 5

The operating temperature is too hot for many applications.

carbonate ions are consumed in the reaction inject CO 2
to compensate
70

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC)

phosphoric acid electrolyte

40 80% efficiency
150C - 200C operating temp
11 MW units have been tested
sulphur free gasoline can be used
as a fuel
Figure 6

The electrolyte is very corrosive

Platinum catalyst is very expensive
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Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)

thin permeable polymer sheet

electrolyte
40 50% efficiency
50 250 kW
80C operating temperature

Figure 7

Electrolyte will not leak or crack

Temperature good for home or vehicle use
Platinum catalyst on both sides of membrane $$
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Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

hard ceramic oxide electrolyte

~60% efficient
~1000C operating temperature
cells output up to 100 kW
Figure 8

High temp / catalyst can extract the hydrogen from the fuel at the
electrode
High temp allows for power generation using the heat, but limits use
SOFC units are very large
Solid electrolyte wont leak, but can crack

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Data for different types of fuel cell

74

Chart to summarize the applications and main

advantages of fuel cells of different types, and in
different applications.

75

Comparison of Fuel Cell Technologies

76

77

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Benefits
1. Efficient:

In theory and in practice

2. Portable:

Modular units

3. Reliable:

Few moving parts to wear out or break

4. Fuel Flexible: With a fuel reformer, fuels such as natural gas,

ethanol, methanol, propane, gasoline, diesel, landfill
gas,
wastewater, treatment digester gas, or even
ammonia can
be used
5. Environmental: produces heat and water (less than combustion
in both cases), near zero emission of CO and NOx
reduced emission of CO2 (zero emission if pure H2
fuel)
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the future of fuel cells

Used to power personal electronic devices: cell
phones, iPods, laptops
Enough energy to run for days, or weeks (instead
of hours)
Potentially power all cars, airplanes, ships, etc.
60 million tons of carbon dioxide could be
eliminated from yearly greenhouse gas
production
Development of cheaper and more reliable
catalysts
Higher demand = cheaper
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The future of fuel cells

Economic crisis has greatly slowed
technological advancements
Past predictions for 2010 seem
unlikely
Hydrogen cannot be the only
alternative fuel source to solve the
energy crisis
Many more years of research before
mass production will be possible
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The End
QUESTIONS
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CONCLUSION

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