Ch-6-W-12

Gas Turbines

 Turbines as potential power plants

Operation and characteristics of turbines
Performance calculations
Radial flow turbines
Radial axial flow and mixed flow turbines
Turbines applicable to AFVs
Comparison of turbines with diesel engines
Comparison of fuel consumption at different loads

Direct Drive and Mechanical Drive

With land based industries, gas turbines can be used in either direct drive or
mechanical drive application.
With power generation, the gas turbine shaft is coupled to the generator shaft,
either directly or via a gearbox: direct drive application.
A gearbox is necessary in applications where the manufacturer offers the
package for both 60 and 50 cycle (Hertz, Hz) applications. The gear box will
use roughly 2% of the power developed by the turbine in these cases.
For mechanical drive applications, the turbine module arrangement is
different. In these cases, the combination of compressor module, combustor
module, and turbine module is termed the gas generator. Beyond the turbine
end of the gas generator is a freely rotating turbine. It may be one or more
stages. It is not mechanically connected to the gas generator, but instead is
mechanically coupled, sometimes via a gearbox, to the equipment it is driving.
Compressors and pumps are among the potential driven turbomachinery
items

Direct Drive and Mechanical Drive..

The mechanical drive gas turbines are available in three configurations:
1. Single spool-integral output shaft,
2. Single spool-split output shaft, and
3. Dual spool-split output shaft.
. In a single spool-integral output shaft unit the output shaft is an extension
of the main shaft, which connects the compressor and turbine components.
The output shaft may be an extension of the turbine shaft or it may be an
extension of the compressor shaft.
. When the output drive shaft is an extension of the turbine component shaft it
is referred to as a hot end drive. Likewise, when the output drive shaft is
an extension of the compressor component shaft it is referred to as a cold
end drive.
. There are disadvantages to each configuration.

Comparison of the
gas turbine
and
reciprocating engine cycles

Operation and
characteristics
of turbines

BRAYTON CYCLE- The ideal gas turbine cycle.

Gas turbines usually operate in an open cycle as shown.

They can be modeled as a closed cycle by utilizing the air-standard

assumptions.
The combustion and the exhaust process are replaced by
a. A constant pressure heat addition from an external source .
b. A constant pressure heat-rejection process to the ambient air.

The ideal cycle that the working fluid

undergoes in this closed loop is the Brayton
cycle, which is made up of four internally
reversible processes:
1 2: isentropic compression
2 3: constant pressure heat addition
3 4: isentropic expansion (in turbine)
4 1: constant pressure heat rejection.

qin h3 h2 C p T3 T2
qout h4 h1 C p T4 T1
Wnet qin qout
qout
th , Brayton

1
qin
qin
qin
T4 1
T
1
C p T4 T1
T1

1 1
T
C p T3 T2
T2 3 1
T2
Process 1 - 2 and 3 - 4 are isentropic; and P2 P3 and P4 P1
1

P3
T
T2 P2

Thus,


3
T1 P1
T4
P4
1
P
th , Brayton 1 1
where, rp 2

P1
rp
rp is the pressure ratio and,
is the ratio of specific heats.

Example-1. The Simple Ideal Brayton Cycle

A gas-turbine power plant operating on an ideal Brayton cycle has a
pressure ratio of 8. The gas temperature is 300 K at the compressor inlet
and 1300 K at the turbine inlet. Utilizing the air-standard assumptions,
determine (a) the gas temperature at the exits of the compressor and the
turbine,
(b) the back work ratio, and
(c) the thermal efficiency.

10

Solution. with constant specific heats..

P2

T1 300 K T2 T1
P1

k 1
k

P4

T3 1300 K T4 T3
P3
rbw

C p (T2 T1 )
C p (T3 T4 )

th 1

1
k 1
k
p

300 8

k 1
k

0.286

1
1300
8

544k
0.286

717 k

40%

1
8

0.286

45%

or ,
C p (T4 T1 )
qout
(717 300)
th 1
1
1
45%
qin
C p (T3 T2 )
(1300 544)
11

Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones

The actual gas-turbine cycle differs from the ideal Brayton cycle on several
accounts.
1. Some pressure drop during the heat-addition and heat rejection
processes is inevitable.
2. The actual work input to the compressor is more, and
3. The actual work output from the turbine is less because of irreversibilities.
4. The deviation of actual compressor and turbine behavior from the
idealized isentropic behavior can be accurately accounted for by utilizing
the isentropic efficiencies of the turbine and compressor as

where states 2a and 4a are the actual exit states of

the compressor and the turbine, respectively, and
2s and 4s are the corresponding states for the
isentropic case.
12

Example-2. The Simple Actual Brayton Cycle

A gas-turbine power plant operating on an actual Brayton cycle has a
pressure ratio of 8. The gas temperature is 300 K at the compressor inlet
and 1300 K at the turbine inlet. Utilizing the air-standard assumptions, and
assuming a compressor efficiency of 80 percent and a turbine efficiency of
85 percent, determine
(a) the back work ratio,
(b) the thermal efficiency, and
(c) the turbine exit temperature

13

THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH REGENERATION

The high-pressure air leaving the compressor can be heated by transferring

heat to it from the hot exhaust gases in a counter-flow heat exchanger, which
is also known as a regenerator or a recuperator.

qregen ,act h5 h2

and,

qregen ,max h5' h2 h4 h2

The extent to which a regenator approaches an ideal regenerator

is called the effectiveness

h5 h2 T5 T2

under cold air standard assumptions

h4 h2 T4 T2

14

Example-3. The Simple Ideal Brayton Cycle with regeneration

A gas-turbine power plant operating on an actual Brayton cycle has a
pressure ratio of 8. The gas temperature is 300 K at the compressor inlet
and 1300 K at the turbine inlet. Utilizing the air-standard assumptions, and
assuming a compressor efficiency of 80 percent and a turbine efficiency of
85 percent.
Determine the thermal efficiency of the gas-turbine if a regenerator having
an effectiveness of 80 percent is installed.

15

The Brayton cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration

The work required to compress a gas between two specified pressures can be
decreased by carrying out the compression process in stages and cooling the gas in
betweenthat is, using multistage compression with intercooling.
As the number of stages is increased, the compression process becomes nearly
isothermal at the compressor inlet temperature, and the compression work
decreases.
Likewise, the work output of a turbine operating between two pressure levels can be
increased by expanding the gas in stages and reheating it in betweenthat is,
utilizing multistage expansion with reheating. This is accomplished without raising the
maximum temperature in the cycle.
As the number of stages is increased, the expansion process becomes nearly
isothermal.
The foregoing argument is based on a simple principle: The steady-flow
compression or expansion work is proportional to the specific volume of the
fluid. Therefore, the specific volume of the working fluid should be as low as possible
during a compression process and as high as possible during an expansion process.
This is precisely what intercooling and reheating accomplish.
16

The Brayton cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration

These are two other common techniques for increasing the thermal efficiency
of the gas turbine cycle.
1. Inter-Cooling
An intercooler can be inserted into the compression
process; air is compressed to an intermediate
pressure, cooled in an intercooler, and then
compressed to the final pressure. This reduces the
work required for the compressor, and it reduces the
maximum temperature reached in the cycle. The
intermediate pressure is determined by equating the
pressure ratio for each stage of compression;

P2 P4

P1 P3
17

The Brayton cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration

2. Reheating .The second technique for increasing thermal efficiency is to
use a second combustor, called a reheater. The intermediate pressure is
determined as in the compressor; we again require that the ratios be equal;
that is,

P6 P8

P7 P9
P
T

s
18

The Brayton cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration

P2 P4

Pcomp ,mean P1.P4

P1 P3

P6 P8
P P

or, 4 8 Pturb ,mean P1.P4

P7 P9
P7 P1
19

 If the number of compression and

expansion stages is increased, the
ideal
gas-turbine
cycle
with
intercooling,
reheating,
and
regeneration approaches the Ericsson
cycle, as illustrated in Fig.
And
the
thermal
efficiency
approaches the theoretical limit (the
Carnot efficiency).
However, the contribution of each additional stage to the thermal
efficiency is less and less, and the use of more than two or three stages
cannot be justified economically.
Finally, we should note that intercooling and reheating are never used
without regeneration. In fact, if regeneration is not employed,
intercooling and reheating reduce the efficiency of a gas-turbine cycle.
20

EXAMPLE-4. A Gas Turbine with Reheating and Intercooling

An ideal gas-turbine cycle with two stages of compression and two stages of
expansion has an overall pressure ratio of 8. Air enters each stage of the
compressor at 300 K and each stage of the turbine at 1300 K. Determine
a. The back work ratio and,
b. The thermal efficiency of this gas-turbine cycle,
Assuming
(a)no regenerators and
(b) an ideal regenerator with 100 percent effectiveness.
Compare the results with those obtained in Example-1.

21

Solution
For two-stage compression and expansion, the
work input is minimized and the work output is
maximized when both stages of the compressor
and the turbine have the same pressure ratio.
Thus,

Air enters each stage of the compressor at the same temperature, and each stage has
the same isentropic efficiency (100 percent in this case). Therefore, the temperature
(and enthalpy) of the air at the exit of each compression stage will be the same. A
similar argument can be given for the turbine.

Under these conditions, the work input to each stage of the compressor will be the
same, and so will the work output from each stage of the turbine.
22

Solution..
(a) In the absence of any regeneration

p2

T2 T1
p1
p
T8 T9 8
p9

300 2.83

1.4 1
1.4

404 K

or , 1300 T9 2.83

1.3331
1.333

T9 1002.3 K

wc ,in 2( wcomp. I ) 2 C p.air (T2 T1 ) 2 1.005 (404 300) 208.94 kJ / kg

and,
wt ,out 2( wt . I ) 2 C p. gas (T8 T9 ) 2 1.15 (1300 1002.3) 684.72 kJ / kg
wnet wt ,out wc ,in 475.78 kJ / kg

and ,

qin q primary qreheat

C p.air (T6 T4 ) C p. gas (T8 T7 )
1.005 (1300 404) 1.15 (1300 1002.3)
1242.82 kJ / kg
wc ,in 208.94
rbw

30.51%
wt ,out 684.72
w
475.78
th net
38.3%
qin 1242.82

23

Solution
(a) In the absence of any regeneration

wc ,in

208.94
30.51%
wt ,out 684.72
w
475.78
th net
38.3%
qin 1242.82
rbw

A comparison of these results with those obtained in

Example -1 (single stage compression and
expansion) reveals that multistage compression with
intercooling and multistage expansion with reheating
improve the back work ratio (it drops from 40 to 30.51
%) but hurt the thermal efficiency (it drops from 45 to
38.3%).
Therefore, intercooling and reheating are not
recommended in gas-turbine power plants unless
they are accompanied by regeneration.

24

Solution..
(b) With ideal regeneration
The addition of an ideal regenerator (no pressure drops, 100 % effectiveness)
does not affect the compressor work and the turbine work.
Therefore, the net work output and the back work ratio of an ideal gas-turbine cycle
are identical whether there is a regenerator or not.
A regenerator, however, reduces the heat input requirements by preheating the air
leaving the compressor, using the hot exhaust gases.
In an ideal regenerator, the compressed air is heated to the turbine exit
temperature T9 before it enters the combustion chamber.
Thus, under the air-standard assumptions, h5= h7= h9.
The heat input and the thermal efficiency in
this case are

qin q primary qreheat

C p.air (T6 T5 ) C p. gas (T8 T7 )
1.005 (1300 1002.3) 1.15 (1300 1002.3)
641.54 kJ / kg
th

wnet 475.78

74.16%
qin
641.54
25

Example-5
A gas turbine cycle takes in air at 250 C and atmospheric pressure. The
compression pressure ratio is 4. The compressor efficiency is 75%. The inlet
temperature to turbine is limited to 7500 C. What turbine efficiency would give
overall cycle efficiency=0%?
Compressor

1.4 1
T2 s p2

4 1.4 1.486
T1 p1
T2 s 1.486 273 25 442.8 K
now,
T T
442.8 298
c 0.75 2 s 1
T2 a 491.1 K
T2 a T1
T2 a 298
Turbine ,
For 0% cycle efficiency the net work output is zero
That is, turbine work compressor work
C pg (T3 T4 a ) C pa (T2 a T1 )
or ,
T3 T4 a T2 a T1
taking C pg C pa for air cycle
T T
or , t T3 T4 s 2 s 1 - - - (1)
c

1.4 1
T3 p3

now,

4 1.4 1.486 T4 s 1.486 (273 750) 688.4
T4 s p4 s
Substituti ng in (1), we get t 57.7

26

Example-6
In a simple gas turbine plant air enters the compressor at 27 0 C and 1 bar. It is
then heated in the combustion chamber to 700 0 C and then enters the turbine
and expands to 1 bar. The isentropic efficiency of compressor and turbine are
0.80 and 0.85 respectively and the combustion efficiency is 0.98. The fall in
pressure in the combustion chamber is 0.1 bar. Determine
(a) The thermal efficiency.
(b) The back work ratio.
(c) The work ratio
(d) The air rate in kg/kW/hr
(e) The specific fuel consumption
(f) The air-fuel ratio
For air,
Cp=1.005 kJ/kg.K; =1.4
For combustible gas
Cp=1.147 kJ/kg.K;
C.V of fuel=42700 kJ/kg

=1.333

27

Example-7
An open cycle gas turbine plant has a 1-stage compressor and turbine
incorporating a heat exchanger. The air suction is at 1 bar and 290 K. For an
overall pressure ratio of 4.5 and shaft output of 4000 kW, the mass flow is 40
kg/s. If the thermal ratio of heat exchanger is 0.6 and isentropic efficiency of
compressor is 0.84, calculate the isentropic efficiency of turbine for a plant
thermal efficiency of 0.29
For air,
Cp=1.005 kJ/kg.K; =1.4
For combustible gas
Cp=1.07 kJ/kg.K;

=1.365

28

Example-8
An open cycle gas turbine plant has a 1-stage compressor and turbine
incorporating a heat exchanger. The air suction is at 1 bar and 290 K. For an
overall pressure ratio of 4.5 and shaft output of 4000 kW, the mass flow is 40
kg/s. If the thermal ratio of heat exchanger is 0.6 and isentropic efficiency of
compressor is 0.84, calculate the isentropic efficiency of turbine for a plant
thermal efficiency of 0.29
For air,
Cp=1.005 kJ/kg.K; =1.4
For combustible gas
Cp=1.07 kJ/kg.K;

=1.365

29

Example-9 Compound Gas Turbine

In a compound gas turbine, the air from the compressor passes through a heat
exchanger heated by the exhaust gases from the low pressure turbine, and
then into the high pressure combustion chamber. The high pressure turbine
drives the compressor only. The exhaust from the HP turbine passes through
the LP combustion chamber to the LP turbine which is coupled to the external
load. The following data refer to the plant:Compression ratio
=4
Isentropic efficiency of compressor
=0.86
Isentropic efficiency of HP turbine
=0.84
Isentropic efficiency of LP turbine
=0.80
Mechanical efficiency of drive to compressor =0.92
Heat exchanger effectiveness
=0.7
Temp. of gases entering HP turbine
=600 C
Temp. of gases entering LP turbine
=6250 C
For air,
Cp=1.005 kJ/kg.K; =1.4
For combustible gas
Cp=1.15 kJ/kg.K;
=1.333
Ambient conditions
=1 bar, 150 C.
Determine,
(a) The pressure of the gases entering LP turbine
(b) The net specific power
30
(c) The overall efficiency.

Example-10 Automotive Gas Turbine with H.E and power turbine

The layout of an automotive gas turbine is shown in the figure. A 2-stage
compressor with an overall pressure ratio of 6 is driven by a HP turbine. The
LP turbine provides motive power to the car. A heat exchanger with 0.65
effectiveness is provided. The air inlet to LP compressor is 15 0 C and the HP
turbine inlet temperature is 8000 C. The mass flow is 0.7 kg/s.
Isentropic efficiency of compressor
=0.8
Isentropic efficiency of each turbine
=0.85
Mechanical efficiency of compressor shaft
=0.92
Combustion efficiency
=0.97
Temp. of gases entering HP turbine
=600 C
CV of fuel
=42600 kJ/kg
Determine,
(a) The net power developed (b) The overall thermal efficiency (c) The specific
fuel consumption.

Ch-6-W-12-Gas Turbines
Prof (Col) GC Mishra

31

Example-11 Gas Turbine with H.E and power turbine

In an open circuit gas turbine, plant air is compressed adiabatically from a
temperature of 150 C in an axial flow compressor, the pressure ratio being 4
and the adiabatic efficiency of compression is 0.84. The air is then split into
two streams which flow to separate combustion chambers in which
temperature of the air is raised to 6500 C.
The product of one combustion chamber expands adiabatically in a turbine
whose power is just sufficient to drive the compressor; the adiabatic efficiency
of expansion being 0.88. The product of the combustion in other combustion
chamber expand adiabatically in a power turbine of efficiency 0.85 which
drives an electric generator of efficiency 0.95.
Estimate,
(a) The ratio of the air passing through power turbine to the total air
compressed.
(b) The rate at which air is compressed.
(c) The thermal efficiency of the plant when the output from the generator is
4000 kW.
Neglect drop in pressure in ducts and pipes, increase in the mass flow rate
due to addition of fuel and mechanical losses.
Cp for air=1.005 and for gases=1.11 and Cp-Cv=0.287 kJ/kg.K at all points in
the plant.
32

The Turbines
Two Basic Types - Radial and Axial
Almost all industrial Gas Turbines use
axial flow turbines
Like the Compressor, Turbine
Expansion Takes Place in Stages
a row of stationary blades (nozzles)
followed by a row of moving blades
=one stage.

Ch-6-W-12-Gas Turbines
Prof (Col) GC Mishra

33

Radial Flow Turbines

34

35

Axial Flow Turbines

Axial flow turbines are the most widely used; except on low power turbines.
They are more efficient than the radial flow turbines in most operational ranges.
There are three types of axial flow turbine: impulse, reaction, and a
combination of the two known as impulse-reaction.
In the impulse type the total pressure drop across each stage occurs in the
fixed nozzle guide vanes, which, because of their convergent shape,
increase the gas velocity while reducing the pressure. The gas is directed
onto the turbine blades which experience an impulse force caused by the
impact of the gas on the blades.
In the reaction type the fixed nozzle guide vanes are designed to alter the
gas flow direction without changing the pressure. The converging blade
passages experience a reaction force resulting from the expansion and
acceleration of the gas.
Normally gas turbine engines do not use pure impulse or pure reaction
turbine blades but the impulse/reaction combination (Figure-next slide).
The proportion of each principle incorporated in the design of a turbine is
largely dependent on the type of engine in which the turbine is to operate,
but in general it is about 50% impulse and 50% reaction.
36

Comparison between
a pure impulse turbine
and
an impulse/reaction turbine.

Ch-6-W-12-Gas Turbines
Prof (Col) GC Mishra

37

Automotive Gas Turbines

Advantages over IC engines:1. Gas turbine cycle offers the thermodynamic advantage of complete expansion.
2. Simplicity. Fewer moving parts; GT directly produces relative power.
3. Smooth and vibration-less power delivery. Due to rotary action. Also, combustion
generated noise is absent due to continuous combustion.
4. Very compact and light for a specific power (sp. Weight 10-20% less than SI engine).
5. Potential for low emissions due to the isolation process from the components where
work transfers take place, permitting better control.
6. Potential for lower maintenance requirements and better life expectancy due to lower
number of moving parts (about 2/3rd of SI engines).
7. Easy cold starting.
8. Cooling system is not required in a simple gas turbine.
9. Negligible lubricating oil requirement.
10. High mechanical efficiency (85-90%).
11. Cheaper fuels may be used.

38

Automotive Gas Turbines

Disadvantages :1. In spite of complete expansion, the thermal efficiency of the GT is lower than piston
engines because of lower temperatures and lower compressor efficiency (max. 80%
for the best rotary compressors).
2. Therefore, with a simple GT unit (without a heat exchanger), the sfc may be twice
that of average petrol engine and thrice that of diesel engine.
3. Automotive engines for most part run on part load. The efficiency of GT under part
load conditions is very poor.
4. The speed of GT rotor is very high (greater than 30000 rpm). This necessitates a
large gear reduction.
5. High speeds also result in high rotational inertia which creates difficulties in throttle
control due to time-lag.
6. High initial cost due to costly materials and R & D and manufacturing cost. Presently
the cost is about twice that of petrol engines.
7. The characteristics like specific power, acceleration, fuel economy, relative cost etc.
worsen with decreasing size.

39

Configuration
1.Single-shaft Gas Turbine

Ch-6-W-12-Gas Turbines
Prof (Col) GC Mishra

40

2. Free or, Twin-shaft Gas TurbineMost suitable for automotive applications

Ch-6-W-12-Gas Turbines
Prof (Col) GC Mishra

41

M1A1 Abrams - Engine

AGT1500 turboshaft engine from
Honeywell.
Compact
design,
cold-starting,
instant power, multifuel capabilities
and stealthy operation.
The AGT-1500 turbine output shafts
speed is reduced by a gearbox.
This reduces the work turbines
approximate 26600 rpm maximum
angular speed to an output shaft
maximum speed of 3500 rpm.
The output shaft of the gear
reduction
drives
the
torque
converter

42

Ch-6-W-12-Gas Turbines
Prof (Col) GC Mishra

43

The transmission module used in the M1A1 houses the torque converter,
transmission, a hydrostatic steering unit, and hydraulic brakes. Figure
illustrates the overall layout of the transmission module.

Ch-6-W-12-Gas Turbines
Prof (Col) GC Mishra

44

GAS TURBINE (GT) VS DIESEL ENGINES

1.

Weight Comparison
AGT-1500 ( M1A1 Abram )
: 1122 Kg w/o starter,
generator
AVCR-1360 ( GM )
: 2029 kg with starter,
generator and cooling system
MB-873 (Leopard- II )
: 2040 kg with starter,
generator but w/o cooling
system

. AGT-1500 is lighter than its competitors.

. The transmission of AGT-1500 is heavier than AVCR.
. But, with all the external components like starter, generator, air cleaner,
cooling system and required fuel for endurance, AGT-1500 has weight
advantage of only 0.2 to 1.2 % of the total weight of a 50 ton battle tank
(max weight of engine = 4% of total weight).

45

GAS TURBINE (GT) VS DIESEL ENGINES

2.

Specific fuel Consumption (sfc).

AGT-1500
: 204 gm/bhp/hr
AVCR-1360
: 180
MB-873
: 170
Difference in sfc highest at idling ( most time spent in idling.
For AGT1500, sfc about 140% more than AVCR-1360 at idling.

sfc
AGT-1500

300

AVCR-1360

200

CV TCA ( Rolls Royce)

100

200

400
600
POWER, HP

800

100046

GAS TURBINE (GT) VS DIESEL ENGINES

3. Air requirement
AGT-1500 requires approx. 3 times more air for combustion than AVCR1360; correspondingly larger requirement of air cleaner.
Gas turbines require less cooling than diesel engines because their heat
rejection is only 10-20% that of diesel. But, depending upon the total air
requirement for cooling the power pack including the transmission, there is
no significant difference to affect the inlet and outlet grills which are
governed by the total air mass flow.
The amount of air required for cooling is also important for its influence on
the power required for driving the cooling fan.
AGT-1500
30 hp to cool only the engine.
AVCR-1360
160 hp
AGT-1500
50 hp for 2-stage cooling system (engine
and Transmission).
AVCR-1360
250 hp
47

GAS TURBINE (GT) VS DIESEL ENGINES

4. Agility
As a corollary to less power absorbed by cooling fans of AGT-1500, it is
claimed that this gave the turbine powered M1A1 significantly better
acceleration since it had more power available at the sprockets.
AGT
6.2 to 6.7 Sec for acceleration from 0 to 32 kmph
AVCR
7.8 to 8.7 Sec
MB 873
7 Sec
In this regard, AGT-1500 scores over all others.

GAS TURBINE (GT) VS DIESEL ENGINES: Other facets of

performance

Starting.
- Better starting for GT especially on cold conditions.
- AGT requires lesser starting torque.
Noise.
GT quieter than diesel but, militarily less significant since, major source of
noise is due to tracks.
Smoke Emission.
GTs due to their continuous combustion at large AF ratio produce less smoke.
However diesel with pre combustion chambers can achieve good results.
RAM-D.
GT is simpler since it has 30% less components.
Time between overhauls for GT is in the range of 15,000-20,000 Km as
against 5,000-7,000 Kms for diesels.
MTBF is same when all the defects are accounted for. However, it is 89%
better for diesels if only the critical defects are considered.
Cost.
AGT costlier due to requirement of more expensive materials and higher
capital investment in production plant ( AGT costlier by approx $ 60,000 than
AVCR-1360).
49

The End
QUESTIONS
?

CONCLUSION

THANK
?

YOU

50