Dr.

B Dayal

Dr. B Dayal

STEADY STATE CORNERING

Cornering behaviour equated with handling.
handling meant to imply the responsiveness of a vehicle to
driver input, or the ease of control. As such, handling is an
overall measure of the vehgicle driver combination.
Driver and vehicle is a closed loop system.
Open loop refers to vehicle response to specific steering
inputs, and is more precisely defined as directional
response behaviour.

LOW SPEED TURNING

At low speed tyres need not develop lateral forces. Thus they
roll with no slip angle.
If the rear wheels have no slip angle, the center of turn must
lie on the projection of the rear axle.
Likewise, the perpendicular from each of the front wheels
should pass through the same point called as center of
turn.
This is called as condition of true rolling.
The ideal turning angles on the front wheels can be
established by Ackerman Geometry or Ackerman
steering.

CONDITION OF TRUE
ROLLING

Condition of true rolling

true rolling occurs only when the direction of
motion of the vehicle is perpendicular to the
wheel axis, i.e., the wheel is subjected to
forward force. on a circular path, true rolling
condition occurs when the projected axes of
several wheels all moving in different curved
path intersect at a single point called the
instantaneous centre.
whenever a vehicle takes a turn, the front wheel
must turn in a definite manner both in relation
to eachother and to the axis of the rear wheels
so that the lateral slip may be avoided and true
rolling for all the wheels is obtained. for this
all

Condition of true rolling

the wheels must always rotate about the
instantaneous centre. since the rear wheels
have a common and fixed axis, it is quite
obvious that this common centre o would lie
some where on its extension
from the figure

cot = (c + x)/b = c/b + x/b = c/b + cot

or cot - cot = c/b
where,
= angle of inside lock
= angle of outside lock
a = wheel track
b = wheel base

Condition of true rolling

C = DISTANCE BETWEEN PIVOT CENTRES
D = LENGTH OF TRACK ROD
TURNING CIRCLE RADIUS

OUTER FRONT WHEEL R OF = b/SIN + (a

c)/2
INNER FRONT WHEEL R IF = b/SIN - ( a
c)/2
OUTER REAR WHEEL R OR = b Cot + (a
c)/2
INNER REAR WHEEL R IR = b Cot (a c)/2

TURNING RADIUS
TURNING RADIUS OF AN AUTOMOBILE
VEHICLE IS THE RADIUS OF THE ARC
DESCRIBED BY THE CENTRE OF THE
TRACK MADE BY THE OUTSIDE FRONT
WHEEL OF THE VEHICLE WHEN MAKING
ITS SHORTEST TURN.
- Society of
Automotive Engineer
ROF =[(-b/SIN )2 + c2 + 2bc/TAN ]1/2+(ac)/2

EXAMPLE
A motor car has a wheel base of 2.743 m
and pivot center of 1.065 m. the front
and rear wheel track is 1.217 m.
calculate the correct angle of outside
lock and turning circle radius of the outer
front and inner rear wheel when angle of
inside lock is 400.

GRAPHICAL SOLUTION
DIAGRAM

GRAPHICAL SOLUTION
Cot = PI/HI = (PG +IG)/HI
Cot = QI/HI = (PG IG)/HI
Therefore, Cot - Cot = 2IG/HI =
2QG/QK = c/b

ANALYTICAL SOLUTION FOR

ACKERMANN LINKAGE

ANALYTICAL SOLUTION FOR

ACKERMANN LINKAGE
If the slight inclination of the track rod is neglected, the movement
of M and N in the direction parallel to the axle beam PQ can be
considered as the same, say z. let MN represent the correct
steering position and r denotes the cross arm radius.
Then
sin ( + ) = (y +z)/r
And
sin ( ) = (y z)/r
\hence
sin ( + ) + sin ( ) = 2sin
with the help of above equations, the variables and can be
calculated for correct steering.

LOW SPEED TURNING

Off-tracking occurs at the rear wheels.
Off - tracking distance.
= R [1 cos (L / R)]
Using the expression for a series expansion of the cosine
cos z = 1 z2/2 + z4/4 z6/6 .
Then
= L2 / 2R
For obvious reasons, off tracking is primarily of concern with
long wheel base vehicles such as trucks and buses. For
articulated trucks, the geometric equations become more
complicated and are known as tractrix equations.

HIGHS SPEED CORNERING

At high speed, the turning equations deffer because lateral
acceleration will be present. To counteract the lateral
acceleration the tyres must develop lateral forces, and slip
angles will be present at each wheel.
Slip angle. The angle between direction of heading and
direction of travel of a wheel is known as slip angle.
The cornering force. The lateral force denoted by Fy, is called
as the cornering force when the camber angle is zero.
At a given tyre load, the the cornering force grows with slip
angle. At low slip angles (50 or less):
Fy = C
Where,
C = cornering stiffness
= slip angle
A positive slip produces negative force (to the left) on the tyre.
SAE defines cornering stiffness as the negative of the slope,
such that C takes on a positive value.

VARIABLES AFFECTING CORNERING

STIFFNESS
Tyre size and type (radial versus bias ply construction)
Number of plies
Cord angle
Wheel width
Treads
For a given tyre:
Load
Inflation pressure

HIGH SPEED CORNERING

Cornering forces (contd):
Cornering coefficient
CC = C / Fz
Cornering equations
Fy = Fyf + Fyr = MV2 / R
Where,
Fyf = lateral cornering force at the front axle.
Fyr = lateral (cornering) force at the rear axle.
M = mass of the vehicle
V = forward velocity
R = radius of turn
Also, Fyfb Fyr c = 0
Thus Fyf = Fyr . c/b
Substituting into equation
MV2 / R = Fyr (c/b + 1) = Fyr (b + c)/b = Fyr L/b
Fyr = Mb/L (V2/R)
f = Wf V2 / (CfgR)
And r = Wr V2 / (CrgR)

HIGH SPEED CORNERING

Cornering equations (contd)
It can be seen that:
= 57.3 L/R + f r
= 57.3 L/R + WfV2 / CfgR WrV2 / CrgR
= 57.3 L/R + (Wf/Cf Wr/Cr)V2 / gR
Where,
= steer angle at the front wheel
Cf = cornering stiffness of the front axle tyres
Cr = cornering stiffness of the rear axle tyres
Understeer gradient
The above equation can be written in the short:
= 57.3 L/R + Kay
Where
K = understeer gradient (deg / g)
ay = lateral acceleration

HIGH SPEED CORNERING

Understeer gradient
Here, K = Wf/Cf Wr/Cr
There are three possibilities:
Neutral steer: K = 0
Or
W f / C f = W r / C r
Therefore, f = r
On a constant radius turn, there is no change in steer angle. Steer
angle = ackerman angle = 57.3 L/R.
Neutral steer case corresponds to a balance on the vehicle such
that the force of the lateral acceleration at the CG causes an
identical increase in slip angle at both the front and rear wheels.
Understeer: K > 0
Or
W f / C f > W r / C r
Therefore, f > r
The steer angle will have to increase with speed in proportion to K
timmes the lateral acceleration in gs.

HIGH SPEED CORNERING

Understeer gradient
Understeer (contd)
Thus it increases linearly with the lateral acceleration. In the
under steer case, the lateral acceleration causes the front
wheel to slip side ways to a greater extent than at the rear
wheels. Thus, front wheel require to be steered to a greater
angle.
Oversteer: K < 0
Or
Wf / Cf < Wr / Cr
Therefore, f < r
The steer angle will have to decrease with speed. In the this
case, the lateral acceleration causes the rear wheel to slip
side ways to a greater extent than at the front wheels.
Thus, front wheel require to be steered to a lesser angle.

HIGH SPEED CORNERING

Characteristic speed
For an under steer vehicle,The speed at which the steer angle
required to negotiate any turn is twice the ackerman angle.
= 57.3 L/R + Kay
= 2 . 57.3 L/R
If
Then 2 x 57.3 L/R = 57.3 L/R + Kay
Or K ay = 57.3 L/R
ay = V2 / R = 57.3Lg/KR
V2 = 57.3Lg / K
Vchar = (57.3Lg / K)0.5
Critical speed
In the over steer case, a critical speed will exist above which the
vehicle will be unstable
Vcrit = (-57.3 Lg / K)0.5
Long wheel base vehicles have a higher critical speed. An over
steer vehicle can be driven at speeds less than critical and
becomes directionally unstable above this speed.

HIGH SPEED CORNERING

Lateral acceleration gain

It is the ratio of lateral acceleration to the steering angle
ay / = [V2/57.3Lg) / [1 + KV2/57.3 Lg]
When K = 0 lateral acceleration gain V2
When V = Vcrit, lateral acceleration =
Yaw velocity gain
Ratio of yaw velocity to the steering angle. = r/
Yaw velocity, r, is the rate of rotation in heading angle.
r = 57.3 V / R
r / = (V/L) / [1 + KV2/57.3Lg]
Side slip angle
At any point on the vehicle, a side slip angle may be defined as the
angle between the longitudinal axis and the local direction of travel.
For any spee the side slip angle , at CG will be:
= 57.3 c/R r
= 57.3 c/R WV2 / (CrgR)

HIGH SPEED CORNERING

Side slip angle (contd)
The speed at which the side slip angle becomes 0 is:
V = 0 = (57.3 gc Cr / Wr)0.5
Side slip angle is independent of radius of turn.
Static Margin
the static margin is defined as the distance the neutral point falls
behind the CG, normalised by wheel base.
static margin = e / L
Static margin is determined by the point on the vehicle where a side
force will produce no steady state yaw velocity (i.e., the neutral
steer point).
Neutral steer line is the locus of points in the x z plane along which
external lateral forces produce no steady state yaw velocity.
When the point is behind the CG, the static margin is +ve and the
vehicle is under steer.
At the CG the margin is 0, and neutral steer.
When ahead of CG, -ve, over steer.

SUSPENSION EFFECT ON
CORNERING

Oileys definition for understeer / oversteer vehicle.

When the front axle is more compliant than the rear (understeer
vehicle), a lateral disturbance produces more side slip at the front
axle, hence the vehicle turns awayfrom the disturbance. If the
rear axle exhibits more cornering compliance (oversteer), the rear
of the vehicledrifts out and it turns into the disturbance. The
lateral acceleration acting at the CG adds to the disturbance force
further increasing the turning response and instability.

SUSPENSION EFFECT ON
CORNERING
Roll moment distribution.
Understeer / oversteer of a vehicle depends upon the balance of roll
moments distributed on the front and rear axles. More roll moment
on the front axle contributes to underrsteer, whereas more roll
moment on the rear axle contributes to oversteer.
K = 0.5 Kss2
Where,
K = roll stiffness of the suspension
Ks = vertical rate of each of the left and right springs.
s = lateral seperation between the springs
Roll center. The point at which the lateral forces are transferred from
the axles to sprung mass.
Roll center can also be thought of as the point on the body at which
lateral forces application will produce no roll angle.
It is the point around which the axle rolls when subjected to a pure
roll moment.
Fzo Fzi = 2Fyhr/t + 2K/t = 2Fz

SUSPENSION EFFECT ON
CORNERING
Roll moment distribution.
Where,
Fzo = load on the outside wheel
Fzi = load on the inside wheel
Fy = lateral force = Fyo + Fyi
hr = roll center height
= roll angle of the body
Lateral load transfer arises from two mechanisms:
2Fy hr / t = load transfer due to cornering force
2K / t = lateral load transfer due to vehicle roll.
M = [W h1 sin + h1 cos . W V2 / Rg ]cos
For small angle sin = cos = 1 and cos = 1
Then, M = Wh1[ + V2/Rg]
But M = Mf + Mr = (Kf + Kr)
Thus = [Wh1 V2/Rg] / [Kf + Kr Wh1]
Roll rate of the vehicle = d/day = Wh1 / [Kf + Kr Wh1]

SUSPENSION EFFECT ON
CORNERING
Roll moment distribution.
For front and rear axles moments
Mf = {Kf[Wh1V2/Rg)] / [Kf + Kr Wh1]} + Wf hf V2 / Rg =
Fzf tf
Mr = {Kr[Wh1V2/Rg)] / [Kf + Kr Wh1]} + Wr hr V2 / Rg = Fzr
tr
Where,
Fzf = Fzfo Wf/2 = - (Fzfi Wf/2)
Fzr = Fzro Wr/2 = - (Fzri Wr/2)

SUSPENSION EFFECT ON
CORNERING
Roll moment distribution on vehicles tends to be biased towards the
front wheels due to a number of factors:
Relative to load, the front spring rate is usually slightly lower than
that at the rear (for flat ride), which produces a bias towards
higher roll stiffness at the rear. However, independent front
suspensions used on virtually all cars enhance front roll stiffness
because of the effectively greater spread on the front suspension
springs.
Designers usually strive for higher front roll stiffness to ensure
understeer in the limit of cornering.
Stabiliser bars are often used on the front axle to obtain higher
front roll stiffness.
If stabilizer bars are needed to reduce body lean, they may be
installed on the front or on the front and rear. Caution should be
used when adding a stabilizer bar only to the rear because of the
potential to induce unwanted oversteer.

SUSPENSION EFFECT ON
CORNERING
Fy = C
Where,
Fy = Lateral force developed von the axle
C = cornering stiffness of two tyres, each at one half the axle
load.
= slip angle
The cornering stiffness of each tyre can be represented by a second or
higher order polynomial and the lateral force developed by either
can be written as:
Fy = C = (a Fz b Fz2)
Where Fy = lateral force of one tyre
C = cornering stiffness of one tyre
= first coefficient in the cornering stiffness polynomial
b = second coefficient in the cornering stiffness polynomial
Fz = load on one tyre (assumed equal on both tyres in previous
analysis)

SUSPENSION EFFECT ON
CORNERING
For a vehicle cornering, the lateral force of both tyres F y is given by: Fy
= (a Fzo b Fzo2 + a Fzi b Fzi2 ) C
Now let the load change on each wheel be given by Fz
Fzo = Fz + Fz
Fzi = Fz Fz
Then Fy = [a(Fz + Fz) b (Fz + Fz)2 + a Fz Fz) - b (Fz Fz)2]
This equation reduces to:
Fy = [2aFz 2b Fz2 2bFz2]
C = 2aFz 2bFz2
Or
Fy = [C 2bFz2]
Now = 57.3 L/R f r
For the two tyres on the front we can write:
Fyf = [Cf 2bFz2] f = WfV2 / Rg
And on the rear
Fyr = [Cr 2bFzr2] r = WrV2 / Rg
Thus, = 57.3L/R + [(WfV2 / Rg) / (Cf 2bFzf2)] - [(WrV2 / Rg) / (Cr
2bFzr2)]

SUSPENSION EFFECT ON
CORNERING
Since C >> 2bFz2
Then
1/ (C 2bFz2) = 1/[C (1 2bFz2 / C )] = 1/(1 +
2bFz2 / C) / C
The equation for can be written as:
= 57.3L/R + [(Wf /Cf - Wr / Cr) + (Wf 2bFzf2 /Cf2 Wr
2bFzr2 /Cr2)] V2 / Rg
First term in the bracket is simply the understeer gradient arising
from the nominal cornering stiffness of the tyres, Ktyres, as was
developed earlier. The second term represents the understeer
gradient arising from lateral load transfer on the tyres, i.e.,
Kllt = Wf 2bFzf2 /Cf2 Wr 2bFzr2 /Cr2
Since all the variables in the above equation are positive, the
contribution from front axle is always understeer; that from the
rear axle is always negative, meaning it is oversteer.

SUSPENSION EFFECT ON
CORNERING
Camber change:
The inclination of a wheel outward from the body is known as the
camber angle. The camber on a wheel will produce a lateral force
known as camber thrust.
Camber angle produces much lesser force than slip angle.
Camber thrust is additive to the cornering force from slip angle, thus
affecting understeer.
The total camber angle during cornering will be:
g = b +
Where,
g = camber angle with respect to the ground
b = camber angle of the wheel with respect to the body
= roll angle of the vehicle.
The camber angle arising from the suspension is a function of the roll
angle, because the jounce on the inside wheel and the rebound on
the outside wheel relate directly to roll angle.

SUSPENSION EFFECT ON
CORNERING

Camber change:
Fy = C + C
Thus, = Fy / C C / C
f = Wf . ay /C (C/C) . (f / ) . ( / ay)ay
and
r = Wr . ay /C (C/C) . (r / ) . ( / ay)ay
Substituting these in the turning equation
= 57.3L / R + [(Wf/Cf Wr/Cr) + (Cf f / Cf Cr r / Cr
) . /ay] . V2/Rg
Kcamber = (Cf f / Cf Cr r / Cr ) . /ay
Roll steer
Roll steer is defined as the steering motion of the front or rear wheels
with respect to the sprung mass that is due to the rolling motion of
the sprung mass.
Let be the roll steer coefficient on an axle
The understeer gradient contribution from roll steer = K roll steer = (f
r) . /ay
A +ve roll steer coefficient causes the wheels to steer to the right in a

SUSPENSION EFFECT ON
CORNERING

Roll steer
Right hand roll.
Positive roll steer on the front axle steers out and is understeer.
Conversely positive roll steer on the rear axle is oversteer.
On solid axles, roll steer coefficient is equal to the inclination angle of
the trailing arms.
Lataral force compliance steer.
With a forward yaw center on a rear axle, the compliance allows the
axle to steer towards the outside of the turn, thus causing
oversteer. Conversely, a rearward yaw center results in understeer.
On a front axle, just opposite is true a rearward yaw center is
oversteer and a forward yaw center is understeer.
Lateral force compliance steer coefficient A = c / Fy
Where,
c = steer angle
Fy = lateral force
On the front axle
cf = Af . Fyf = Af . Wf . ay

SUSPENSION EFFECT ON
CORNERING
Lataral force compliance steer. (contd)
Klfcs = Af . Wf - Ar . Wr
Aligning torque.
The aligning torque is the source of understeer effect.
Kat = WP / L . [(Cf + Cr) / (Cf . Cr)]
Because C values are positive, the aligning torque effect is positive
(understeer) and cannot ever be negative (oversteer).

EFFECT OF TRACTIVE FORCES ON

CORNERING
WfV2 / (Rg) = Fyf cos (f + ) + Fxf sin (f + )
Wr V2 / (Rg) = Fyr cos r + Fxr sin r
Where, Wf , Wr = load on the front and rear axles
V = forward speed
R = radius of turn
Fyf , Fyr = cornering forces on front and rear axles.
Fxf , Fxr = tractive forces on the front and rear axles
f , r = slip angles at front and rear wheels.

Solving for f and r and assuming small angles, i.e., cos = 1 and sin
= , and substituting into equation
= 57.3 L / R + f r
= [57.3 L/R / (1 + Fxf/Cf)] + [(WfV2/CfRg)/(1 + Fxf/Cf )] +
[(WrV2/CrRg)/(1 + Fxr/Cr )]
Since Fxf / Cfand Fxr / Cr are much less than one
1 / (1 + Fxf/Cf) = 1 - Fxf/Cf
Then = [57.3 L/R / (1 + Fxf/Cf)] + [(Wf/Cf Wr/Cr) (WfFxf/Cf2
WrFxr/Cr2)] . V2/Rg

EFFECT OF TRACTIVE FORCES ON

CORNERING
= [57.3 L/R / (1 + Fxf/Cf)] + [(Wf/Cf Wr/Cr)
(WfFxf/Cf2 WrFxr/Cr2)] . V2/Rg
This is the final turning equation for the case where tractive forces
are taken into account. The three terms on the right side are:
Term 1; this is the ackerman steer angle altered by the reactive
force on the front axle
Term 2: this is the understeer gradient
Term 3: this term represents the effect of tractive forces on the
understeer behaviour of the vehicle.

SUMMERY OF UNDERSTEER EFFECTS

Understeer components

source

Ktyres = Wf/Cf Wr/Cr

Tyre cornering
stiffness

Kcamber = (Cf f/Cf - Cr r/Cr) . /ay

Camber thrust

Kroll steer = (f r) d/day

Roll steer

Klfcs = Af Wf Ar Wr

Lateral force
compliance steer

Kat = Wp/L[(Cf + Cr) / Cf . Cr

Aligning torque

Kllt = (Wf/Cf) . (2bFzf2/Cf) - (Wr/Cr) .

(2bFzr2/Cr)

Lateral load transfer

Kstrg = -Wf(rv + p) / Kss

Steering system

EXPERIMENTAL MEASUREMENTS OF
UNDERSTEER GRADIENT
CONSTANT RADIUS METHOD
CONSTANT SPEED METHOD

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1
A car has a weight of 1901 lb front axle and 1552 lb on the rear with
a wheel base of 100.6 inches. The tyres have the following
cornering stiffness values:
load

Cornering stiffness

Cornering coefficient

225

67

0.268

450

121

0.269

675

171

0.253

900

225

0.250

1125

257

0.228

1350

300

0.222

Determine the following cornering properties for the vehicle;

Ackerman steer angle for 500, 200, 100 and 50 ft turn radius
Understeer gradient
Characteristic speed
Lateral acceleration gain at 60 mph
Yaw velocity gain at 60 mph
Side slip angle at the CG on an 800 ft radius turn at 60 mph
Static margin

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2
A passenger car has an equal arm (parallel) independent front
suspension and a conventional solid rear axle with leaf spring
suspension. The front suspension has a roll stiffness K f of 1500
in-lb/deg. The leaf springs have a rate of 115 lb/in and a lateral
seperation of 40 inches.
What is the rear suspension roll stiffness.
If the sprung mass is 2750 lb at a CG height 8 inches above the
roll axis, what is the roll rate?
Assuming a camber stiffness that is 10% of the cornering
stiffness, estimate the under steer gradient due to camber effects.
The rear leaf springs have an effective trailing arm angle of -70
(the negative sign means that the pivot of the arms is below the
wheel center), what is the under steer gradient due to rear roll
steer?

GEOMETRY OF A TURNING
VEHICLE

TYRE CORNERING FORCE PROPERTIES

VARIABLES AFFECTING TYRE

CORNERING STIFFNESS

CORNERING OF A BICYCLE
MODEL

CHANGE OF STEERING ANGLE WITH

SPEED

YAW VELOCITY GAIN AS A

FUNCTION OF SPEED

SIDE SLIP ANGLE ON A LOW SPEED

TURN

SIDE SLIP ANGLE ON A HIGH SPEED

TURN

NEUTRAL STEER LINE ON A VEHICLE

OILEYS DEFINITIONS FOR UNDER

STEER / OVER STEER

LATERAL FORCE VERTICAL LOAD

CHARACTERISTICS OF TYRES

FORCE ANALYSIS OF A SIMPLE VEHICLE

IN CORNERING

FORCE ANALYSIS FOR ROLL OF A

VEHICLE

LATERAL FORCE CAUSED BY CAMBER OF A

TYRE

CAMBER CHANGE IN CORNERING OF A

VEHICLE

ROLL STEER WITH A SOLID AXLE

INFLUENCE OF REAR AXLE

TRAILING ARM ANGLE ON UNDER
STEER

STEER DUE TO LATERAL COMPLIAQNCE IN

THE SUSPENSION

CORNERING MODEL WITH TRACTIVE FORCES

EXAMPLE MEASUREMENT OF UNDER

STEER GRADIENT BY CONSTANT
RADIUS METHOD

EXAMPLE MEASUREMENT OF UNDER

STEER GRADIENT BY CONSTANT SPEED
METHOD