CELLS: THE LIVING UNITS

HISTORY OF CELLS:

Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1675): was the first person to

observe living cells.

The English scientist Robert Hooke first observed plant cells

with a microscope in the late 1600s.

1830s - two German scientists, Matthias Schleiden and

Theodor Schwann, proposed that all living things are
composed of cells.

German pathologist Rudolf Virchow extended this idea by

contending that cells arise only from other cells.

Since the late 1800s, cell research has been exceptionally

fruitful and provided us with four concepts collectively
known as the cell theory

CELL THEORY
All organisms are composed of cells
German botanist Matthais Schleiden in 1838
German zoologist Theodor Schwann in 1839

All cells come only from preexisting cells

German physician Rudolph Virchow in 1850s

Cells are the smallest structural and

functional unit of living organisms

 The trillions of cells in the human body

include over 200 different cell types that vary
greatly in shape, size, and function
Regardless of type, all cells are composed
chiefly of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen,
and trace amounts of several other elements.
In addition, all cells have the same basic
parts and some common functions. For this
reason, it is possible to speak of a
generalized, or composite, cell
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The human cell has three main parts:

The nucleus: an organelle that controls cellular
activities. Typically the nucleus lies near the cells
center.
The plasma membrane: the outer boundary of
the cell.
The cytoplasm: the intracellular fluid packed
with
organelles, small structures that perform specific
cell functions.
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NUCLEUS
Control center of the
cell
Contains genetic
material (DNA)

Three regions
Nuclear membrane
(envelope)
Nucleolus
Chromatin
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NUCLEUS...
1. NUCLEAR MEMBRANE (ENVELOPE)
. Structure: Double-membrane structure
pierced by pores. Outer membrane
continuous with the endoplasmic
reticulum.
. Function: Separates the nucleoplasm
from the cytoplasm and regulates passage
of substances to and from the nucleus.
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NUCLEUS...
2. NUCLEOLUS
dark-staining spherical bodies found within the nucleus
where ribosomal subunits are assembled
Ribosomes made of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and protein are
manufactured in the nucleolus
Ribosomes move to cytoplasm to aid in synthesis (production) of
protein

3. CHROMATINS
viscous, gelatinous substance which contains DNA,
RNA, basic proteins called histones, and nonhistone
(more acidic) proteins.
Chromosomes active state : Chromatin condenses to form chromosomes when
the cell divides
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PLASMA MEMBRANE

Also called the cell membrane or

plasmalemma
Surrounds
outside
of ALL cells
Structure:
Composed
of double
layer of phospholipids and
proteins

Function:
selectively permeable boundary
between the cell and the external
environment
Outside
Controls
of cell what enters or leaves
the cell
Proteins

Carbohydrate
chains

Cell
membrane

Inside
of cell
(cytoplasm)

Protein
channel

Lipid bilayer

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Substances move through the

plasma membrane in essentially
two ways:
1. PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Substances cross the membrane without
any energy input from the cell.

2. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
. the cell provides the metabolic energy
(usually ATP) needed to move substances
across the membrane

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PASSIVE TRANSPORT
1. Diffusion - the tendency of molecules
or ions to move from an area where
they are in higher concentration to an area
where they are in lower concentration.

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PASSIVE TRANSPORT
2. Facilitated Diffusion -

Substances require a protein carrier for

passive transport

3. Osmosis
Movement of water from areas (gradients) of
higher concentration to areas of lower
concentration through a semi-permeable
membrane

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ACTIVE TRANSPORT
1. PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

directly utilizes chemical energy to move

molecules through a membrane.

Thesodium-potassium pump, present in

almost all animal cells, is an example of the
use of primary active transport. It expends
ATP energy to move sodium ions out of the
cell and replace them with potassium ions.

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ACTIVE TRANSPORT
1. SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

molecules are moved through a membrane as the

direct result of the diffusion of another substance.

Thesodium-calcium exchanger, orantiporter, uses

the normal diffusion of sodium ions into the cell to power
the transport of calcium out of the cell (and across a
higher concentration gradient).
In another example, theglucose symporteruses the
normal diffusion of sodium ions into the cell to piggyback
the transport of glucose into the cell as well.
1. Symporters
Two substances in the same direction

2. Antiporters
Substances move in opposite directions

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CYTOPLASM
Structure: the cellular material
between the plasma membrane and
the nucleus
Function: site of most cellular activities.

3 MAJOR ELEMENTS:

1. Cytosol - viscous, semitransparent

fluid in which the other cytoplasmic
elements are suspended.
2. Organelles - metabolic machinery
of the cell
3. Inclusions - chemical substances
that may or may not be present,
depending on cell type

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CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES

The organelles (little organs) are specialized cellular

compartments or structures, each performing its own job to
maintain the life of the cell.

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CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES

1. Mitochondria
Structure: Rodlike, double-membrane structures; inner
membrane folded into projections called cristae.
Function: Site of ATP synthesis; powerhouse of the cell.

2. Ribosomes
Structure: Dense particles consisting of two subunits,
each composed of ribosomal RNA and protein. Free or
attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Function: The site of protein synthesis.

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CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES

3. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Fluid-filled tubules for carrying substances
Two types of ER
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Studded with ribosomes
Site where building materials of cellular
membrane are formed

2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Functions in cholesterol synthesis and
breakdown, fat metabolism, and detoxification
of drugs
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CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES

4. GOLGI APPARATUS
Structure: A stack of flattened membranes and
associated vesicles close to the nucleus.
Function: Packages, modifies, and segregates
proteins for secretion from the cell, inclusion in
lysosomes, and incorporation into the plasma
membrane.

5. PEROXISOMES
. Structure: Membranous sacs of catalase and
oxidase enzymes.
. Function: The enzymes detoxify a number of
toxic substances. The most important enzyme,
catalase, breaks down hydrogen peroxide.

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CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES

6. LYSOSOMES
Structure: Membranous sacs containing acid
hydrolases
Function: Sites of intracellular digestion.

7. MICROTUBULES
Structure: Cylindrical structures made of
tubulin proteins.
Function: Support the cell and give it shape.
Involved in intracellular and cellular
movements. Form centrioles and cilia and
flagella, if present.
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CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES

8. Microfilaments
Structure: Fine filaments composed of the
protein actin.
Function: Involved in muscle contraction and
other types of intracellular movement, help
form the cells cytoskeleton.

9. Intermediate filaments
Structure: Protein fibers; composition varies.
Function: The stable cytoskeletal elements;
resist mechanical forces acting on the cell.
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CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES

10.

Centrioles

Structure: Paired cylindrical bodies, each

composed of nine triplets of microtubules.
Function: Organize a microtubule network
during mitosis (cell division) to form the spindle
and asters.
Form the bases of cilia and flagella.

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INCLUSIONS
1. Cilia
Structure: Short cell-surface projections; each
cilium composed of nine pairs of microtubules
surrounding a central pair.
Function: Coordinated movement creates a
unidirectional current that propels substances
across cell surfaces.

2. Flagellum
. Structure: Like a cilium, but longer; only
example in humans is the sperm tail.
. Function: Propels the cell.
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INCLUSIONS

3. Microvilli
Tubular extensions of the plasma
membrane; contain a bundle of actin filaments.
Function: Increase surface area for absorption.
Structure:

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Cell Division
Cell division is essential for body growth and tissue repair.
Cells that continually wear away, such as cells of the skin
and

intestinal

lining,

reproduce

themselves

almost

continuously. Others, such as liver cells, divide more slowly

(to maintain the size of the organ they compose) but retain
the ability to reproduce quickly if the organ is damaged.
Most cells of nervous tissue, skeletal muscle, and heart
muscle lose their ability to divide when they are fully
mature, and repairs are made with scar tissue (a fibrous
type of connective tissue)

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Events of Cell Division: In most body

cells, cell division, which is called the M
(mitotic) phase of the cell cycle,
involves two distinct events):
Mitosis : the division of the nucleus
Cytokinesis : the division of the cytoplasm

A different process of nuclear division called

meiosis produces sex cells (ova and sperm)
with only half the number of genes found in
other body cells.
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Stages of Mitosis
Interphase
No cell division occurs
The cell carries out normal metabolic
activity and growth

Prophase
First part of cell division
Centromeres migrate to the poles

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

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3.34a

Stages of Mitosis

Metaphase
Spindle from centromeres are attached to
chromosomes that are aligned in the center
of the cell

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slide29
3.34b

Stages of Mitosis
Anaphase
Daughter chromosomes are pulled toward
the poles
The cell begins to elongate

Telophase
Daughter nuclei begin forming
A cleavage furrow (for cell division) begins
to form

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slide
303.35

Stages of Mitosis

Figure 3.14; 1

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Slide31
3.36a

Stages of Mitosis

Figure 3.14; 2

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Slide32
3.36b

Protein Synthesis
Gene DNA segment that carries a
blueprint for building one protein
Proteins have many functions
Building materials for cells
Act as enzymes (biological catalysts)

RNA is essential for protein synthesis

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slide
333.37

Role of RNA
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Transfers appropriate amino acids to the
ribosome for building the protein

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Helps form the ribosomes where proteins
are built

Messenger RN
Carries the instructions for building a
protein from the nucleus to the ribosome

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slide
343.38

Transcription and Translation

Transcription
Transfer of information from DNAs base
sequence to the complimentary base
sequence of mRNA

Translation
Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated
to an amino acid sequence
Amino acids are the building blocks of
proteins

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Slide
353.39