Geoscience B

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Geoscience B
1. Introduction to the petroleum play
2. Depositional environments
3. Reservoir heterogeneity
4. Introduction to geophysics
5. Introduction to wireline logging
6. Calculating hydrocarbon volumes

Class 3.3

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Geoscience B
Topic 3. Reservoir Description

Class 3.3

3.1. RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION

3.1.1. Main reservoir
characteristics
3.1.2. Reservoir quality
3.2. CHARACTERISTICS AT PORE
LEVEL
3.2.1. Lithology, fabric and
texture in
siliciclastic reservoirs
3.2.2. Lithology, fabric and
texture in
carbonate reservoirs
3.2.3. Diagenesis impact on
reservoir
characteristics
3.3. CHARACTERISTICS RELATED TO
SEDIMENTARY
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3
3.4. RESERVOIR ARCHITECTURE

Reservoir Characteristics

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Reservoir Characteristics
Two main groups of sedimentary
rocks are of major importance as
reservoirs.
Clastic/silicicl
Carbona
astic
te
reservoirs
reservoi
Any sediment
rsIn situ
(typically
precipitate
sandstones, but
d
also including
carbonate
clastic carbonates)
transported and
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Carbonate Reservoirs
60% of the
worlds oil
reserves
40% of the
worlds gas
reserves
Dominated
by fields in
the Middle
East, with
around
70% of oil
and 90% of
gas
reserves
within
these
Class 3.3
reservoirs.

http://www.slb.com/services/technical_challenges/carb
onates.aspx

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Carbonate Reservoirs
Carbonate
sediments are
different from
sandstones as:
They form in-situ
They are largely
biological
Although inorganic
precipitation of
CaCO3 from sea Heriot-Watt University
Class 3.3

http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/73/146973-004F4B1C36B.jpg

Carbonate Rocks Composition

All carbonate minerals contain
CO32- ions
They have different amounts of
2+Mg calcite (0-5% Mg)
Low
Ca2+, Mg2+ and Fe
CaCO3

Calcite

CaCO3

Aragonite

CaMg(CO3)2

Dolomite

Fe(CO3)

Siderite

Class 3.3

Past oceans and present

freshwater systems. Trigonal
crystal system
High Mg calcite (5-20% Mg)
Present-day sea.
Compositionally similar to low Mg
calcite. Polymorph of calcite.
Orthorhombic crystal system.
Caves or replacement of calcite by
Mg during burial
Diagenetic mineral in shales and
sandstones

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Carbonate Reservoir Quality

Detrital carbonates
(erosion, transport and
deposition of carbonate
material) may have similar
textural characteristics, as
well as similar porosity
and permeability controls
as clastic rocks.
However, majority of
carbonates formed by
insitu precipitation of http://www.igc.cat
/web/en/mapageo
carbonate minerals. l_atles_roquessed.
html
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Bioclastic
grainstone

Carbonate
Breccia

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Carbonate Reservoir Quality

Carbonate depositional
features
+
Carbonate diagenesis
=
Carbonate porosity (pore
network) and permeability
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Carbonate Rocks
Carbonate rocks can be broadly
divided into two types (depending on
mechanism of carbonate
Biomediated (biogenic)
precipitation)
Inorganic Carbonate
Carbonate

Images from: https://saveareef.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/337864tubbataha-reef-and-other-beautiful-coral-reefs-of-the-world-photos.jpg

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Inorganic Carbonate
Concentrations of Ca(aq)2+ and
CO3(aq)2- in water must be elevated
to the point that super-saturation is
Thermodynamic
equilibrium for calcite at 1 atm.
reached.
and 25C is expressed as:

Where refers to the activity of the ion, generally

some fraction of the ions concentration, and K is the
thermodynamic constant for the mineral.

When the ion activity product for calcite is

greater than Kcalcite, the fluid is
supersaturated with respect to that mineral.
Evaporation of standing body of water (a lake or
sea) will increase the concentration of ions in
the water, facilitating
the precipitation of
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Class 3.3
carbonates.

Inorganic Carbonate
Alternatively Inorganic carbonate may precipitate
when CO32- is elevated due to changes in pH that are
caused by changes in partial pressure of the CO 2
dissolved in water.
Example: As ground water rises to the surface, the
pressure of the CO2 in the ground water will decrease.
This will result in degassing of the ground water and
induce precipitation of carbonates.
Factors affecting inorganic carbonate precipitation:
CO32- saturation, pH level, partial pressure of CO 2, and
temperature of the water.

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Biogenic Carbonates
Built by biological and biochemical process:
Construction of bioherms i.e. build-up formed by
several organisms.

2) Bacterial
Bioherms

1) Coral
Bioherms

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3) Carbonate
exoskeletons
Temperature, salinity, water depth,
turbidity of water column, siliciclastic
input, oxygen and nitrogen
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levels.control
biogenic carbonate 14

Characteristics of Carbonates
Carbonates are very varied in
composition but broadly the
components can divided into three
groups:
1. Grain incl. non-skeletal
and
Micrit
Ooid
Ceme
e/mat
skeletalgrains
grains rix
nt
2. Matrix/micrite
3. Cement

http://www.sepmstrata.org/page.aspx?&pageid=98&4

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Carbonate Texture - Grains

Grains, sometimes also called
allochems, can be of different
origin and composition. The most
common grains in carbonates are:

Ooids and
Intraclast
pisoids (nons.
skeletal
grains)
Extraclasts
Bioclastic/bio
All images from:
http://www.sepmstrata.org/microscopic_Ga
genic
llery
(skeletal
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16
Class 3.3

Carbonate Texture - Grains

Ooids and Peloids (nonskeletal)
Ooids: spherical grains consisting of one or
more concentric rings around nucleus.
Inorganic, typically formed in well-agitated
warm shallow water.

http://blogs.agu.org/georneys/2011/09/11/geology-word-ofthe-week-o-is-for-ooid/

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http://www.sepmstrata.org/microscopic_gallery_d
etails

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Carbonate Texture - Grains

Ooids and Peloids (nonskeletal)
Peloids: spherical to angular grains composed of
crystalline carbonate, with no internal structure.
Most peloids are of faecal origin, and can also be
referred to as pellets.
http://www.sep
mstrata.org/mic
roscopic_gallery
_

Class 3.3

However, similar
grains can be
produced by
micritisation of other
grains (e.g. skeletal
fragments), in which
case they are known
as Pelloids.
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Carbonate Texture - Grains

Bioclastic/biogenic
(skeletal)

Bioclasts
(fragments of
organisms)

The skeletal
component is a
reflection of the
distribution of
carbonatesecreting
invertebrates
through time
and space.
Class 3.3

http://www.pitt.edu/~cejones/GeoImages/5SedimentaryRocks/Carbonates/
BioclasticLimestones/LimestoneCrinoidalCUp.jpg

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Examples of Carbonate
Bioclasts
https://wwwf.imperial.ac.uk/earthscienceandengineering/
rocklibrary/

Bivalve shell

Coccolithophor
es
(nannoscale)

Brachiopod shell

http://commonfossilsofoklahoma.snomnh.ou.edu/corals

http://www.bodc.ac.uk/projects/uk/ukoa/proje
ct_overview/

Rugose coral
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Examples of Biogenic Clasts

Examples of siliceous
bioclasts
Radiolaria
(microsca
le)

Diatoms
(microsca
le)

www.radiolaria.org

Siliceous sponge spicules

http://diatoms.myspecies.info/sites/diatoms.myspecies.info/
files/diatoms-490_30268_1.jpg

(microsca
le)
http://jpaleontol.geoscienceworld.org/content/83/5/811/F10.large.jpg

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Examples of Biogenic Clasts

Examples of phosphatic
Vertebrate bones
bioclasts

https://ancientanglers.files.wordpress.com/2012/08/croppedpriscacara-serrata-1024.jpg

Inarticulate brachiopods

Conodonts
(microscale)
Class 3.3

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Lingula_anatina_7.JPG

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Carbonate Texture - Grains

Intracla
sts

Intraclastic limestone:

http://www.sepmstrata.org/microscopic_g
allery_details.aspx?
gid=159&pg=1&gcid=9

Grapestones:

limestone fragments
Grains of various
(intraclasts) that have
types cemented
separated from the original rock
together (normally by
but remain almost in the same
early diagenesis) to
place,
becoming
part of the
next
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University form a single, larger
23
Class
3.3
layer of limestone
clast

Carbonate Texture - Grains

Extracla
Thests
metamorphic grains
in this example are
fluvial clasts transported
by a low energy channel
into a small lake in the
Carbonate
floodplain

matrix
(precipitated in
The carbonate rock situ,
here
is a lacustrine
limestone
autochtonous)
formed in situ at the
shore of a small lake in
the floodplain

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http://www.sepmstra
ta.org/microscopic_g
allery_details.aspx?
gid=159&pg=1&gcid
=9

24

Carbonate Texture - Matrix

Matrix Fine (< 4m), usually dark
microcrystralline carbonate.
Commonly heterogeneous texture
i.e. areas if finer or coarser crystals.

http://www.sepmstrata.org/page.aspx?
&pageid=98&4

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Grains
(plant
remain
s)
Matri
x
25

Carbonate Texture - Matrix

Also referred to as Micrite or Lime Mud.
Accumulate in many modern environments,
from tidal flats and shallow lagoons to the
deep-sea floor.
Matrix can be formed of small organisms
(plankton, coccoliths, etc) and small
fragments (<0.03 mm) of larger carbonate
grains (algae, shells), as well as inorganic
precipitation of aragonite needles and laths

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Carbonate Texture - Matrix

Grai
ns
(shel
ls)

Pores in
the
matrix

Matri
x
http://www.sepmstrata.org/page.aspx?&pageid=98&4

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Carbonate Texture - Cement

Cementation crystalline precipitation of
minerals in the pores of the sediments.
It is the major diagenetic process producing a
lithified carbonate rock from loose sediments
and taking place principally where there is a
significant throughput of pore-fluid saturated
with respect to the cement phase.
The mineralogy of the cement depends on water
chemistry, particularly Pco2 and the Mg/Ca ratio,
and the carbonate supply rate.

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Carbonate Texture - Cement

Carbonate cementation mostly involves the carbonate
minerals: aragonite, calcite and dolomite. But also minerals
such as quartz, feldspar, phosphate, iron oxides and sulphides.
Neomorphism is used to describe replacement and
recrystallisation processes where there may have been a
change in mineralogy.
Cements can be typically characterised by:
1) Size of crystals (spar, microspar)
2) Shape of crystals
3) Thickness of cement coating on grains
4) Condition of formation
5) Relative position to grains

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Cement Size of Crystals

Size of cement
crystals:
Spar
(large
crystal
s)

Micrite
(matrix,
not
cement)
Microspa
r (small
crystals)
http://www.edafologia.net/comun/trabajos/co3geod/
lam1d.jpg

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Cement Shape of the

Crystals
Acicul
ar

Shape of cement
crystals
SomeDog
examples...
Fibro
Drusy Blocky
us

Botryoi
dal

tooth

Granula
r

Menisc
us

http://museopaleo.unical.it/didattica/geobiologia/teoria_cementi.pdf

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Cement Thickness of Cement

Thickness of cement crystals
Anisopachous
(changing
thickness)

Isopachous
(same
thickness)

Oncoid showing even thickness of

cement layers around a plant
remain partialy dissolved. Photo by S.
Pla-Pueyo

Class 3.3

Botryoidal cement growing only in

the lower part of the grain, but not
coating the upper part, see the
uneven thickness of the coating. Photo
by S. Pla-Pueyo

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Cements Conditions of
Formations

The creation of either a

homogenous or irregular thickness

Vadose conditions
(vadose zone)

Phreatic conditions
Class 3.3 (saturated zone)
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(Figure by S. Pla-Pueyo)

33

Cements Phreatic vs Vadose

Conditions
Phreatic (saturation)
conditions

Vadose conditions

Saturated pores, full of

Pores non-saturated,
water (marine and
fluctuations of water
freshwater environments) table (freshwater
conditions)
Cement can fill the whole
pore
at a certain stage

Cement can fill only part

of the pore at a certain
stage

Isopachous cements
coating surface of grains
(walls of pores)

Anisopachous cements
coating surface of grains
(walls of pores)
Gravitational, pendant,
meniscus cements

Blocky, equant, granular

Geopetal fillings, vadose
cements in centre of
silt
pores
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Class 3.3

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Cements Phreatic vs Vadose

Conditions

Cements grow from walls of pores to

the centre
Differences depending on
Vadose cement
environmental conditions
Phreatic
(typically
cement
anisopachous)

(typically
isopachous)

Tufa facies showing even thickness

of cements coating the walls of the
pores (photo by S. Pla-Pueyo)

Class 3.3

Gravitational (pendant)
cement showing uneven
thickness (photo by S. Pla-Pueyo)

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Cements Vadose Features

Other vadose features and
Geopetal fillings
polarity
ofsilt
beds
Vadose
Top of
bed

Cement

Vadose silt

Botto
m of
The water filling part of the bed
Same process than vadose

pore dries up, leaving the

dried silt at the bottom and
an empty space above it.
Photo by S. Pla-Pueyo

Class 3.3

silt, but later the pore is

filled again with water, and
cement precipitates in the
http://palaios.sepmonline.org/content/24/1/41/F10.large.jpg
remaining space.

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Cements Relative Position To

Grain
Cements fill in pore space they
can therefore be described in
terms of it position to the grain.
Intergranular cements:
Fills in voids between
grains

Class 3.3

Intragranular cements:
Fills in voids within
grains or moulds
(previous dissolution or
emptying of the inner
part
of the grain).
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Cements Relative Position To

Grain
Cements fill in pore space they can therefore
be described in terms of it position to the grain.

Fenestral
cements: Fills in
fenestral voids
between laminae
of bacterial
carbonate

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