OPTIONS, FUTURES, AND OTHE

R DERIVATIVES
Chapter 1 Introduction

Introduction

A derivative= A financial instrument

Forward, futures, options and swaps mark

ets

Hedgers, speculators, and arbitrageurs

A derivative can be define as a financial instru

ment whose value depends on (or derives fro
m) the values of other, more basic, underlying
variables.
Very often the variables underlying derivatives
are the prices of traded assets. However, deriv
atives can be dependent on almost any variabl
e.

Exchange-traded markets

History of derivatives exchange

Introduction of CBOE

Open outcry system to electronic markets

A derivatives exchange is a market where individuals trad

e standardized contracts that have been defined by the exch
ange. Derivatives exchanges have existed for a long time. T
he Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT) was established in 184
8 to bring farmers and merchants together. Initially its main
task was to standardize the quantities and qualities of the gr
ains that were traded. Within a few years the first futures-ty
pe contract was developed. It was known as a to-arrive con
tract. Speculators soon became interested in the contract an
d found trading the contract to be an attractive alternative to
trading the grain itself. A rival futures exchange, the Chicag
o Mercantile Exchange (CME), was established in 1919. N
ow futures exchanges exist all over the world.

Electronic markets
Traditionally derivatives exchanges have used what is kn
own as the open outcry system. This involves traders phy
sically meeting on the floor of the exchange, shouting, an
d using a complicated set of hand signals to indicate the tr
ades they would like to carry out. Exchanges are increasin
gly replacing the open outcry system by electronic tradin
g. This involves traders entering their desired trades at a k
ey board and a computer being used to match buyers and
sellers. The open outcry system has its advocates, but, as t
ime passes, it is becoming less and less common.

Over-the-counter markets

Introduction of over-the-counter market

Advantages and disadvantages

Market size

Over-the-counter markets
The over-the-counter market is an important alternative to
exchanges and measured in terms of the total volume of tr
ading, has become much larger than the exchange-traded
market.
It is a telephone- and computer-linked network of dealers.
Trades are done over the phone and are usually between t
wo financial institutions or between a financial institution
and one of its clients.

Trades in the over- the-counter market are typicall

y much larger than trades in the exchange-traded
market. A key advantage of the over-the-counter
market is that the terms of a contract do not hav
e to be those specified by an exchange. Market p
articipants are free to negotiate any mutually attra
ctive deal. A disadvantage is that there is usually
some credit risk in an over-the-counter trade.

Market size

Both the over-the counter and the exchange-trade

d market for derivative are huge.

Forward contracts

Introduction of forward contracts

Difference with spot contracts
In over-the-counter market
Long & short position
On foreign exchange
Payoffs from forward contracts
Forward prices and delivery prices

Forward contracts

Forward contract is relatively a simple derivative.

It is an agreement to buy or sell an asset at a ce
rtain future time for a certain price.

It can be contrasted with a spot contract, which is

an agreement to buy or sell an asset today.

Forward contracts

A forward contract is traded in the over-the-count

er marketusually between two financial instituti
ons or between a financial institution and one of it
s clients.

Forward contracts

One of the parties to a forward contract assumes a

long position and agrees to buy the underlying ass
et on a certain specified future date for a certain s
pecified price.
The other party assumes a short position and agre
es to sell the asset on the same date for the same p
rice.

Forward contracts

Forward contracts on foreign exchange are very p

opular, and can be used to hedge foreign curre
ncy risk.

Payoffs from forward contracts

The payoff from a long position in a forward cont

ract on one unit of an asset is
S-K
The payoff from a short position in a forward con
tract on one unit of an asset is
K-S

Futures contracts

Define of futures contracts

The largest exchanges
Commodities
Different with forward contract

Futures contracts

A futures contract is an agreement between tw

o parties to buy or sell an asset at a certain tim
e in the future for a certain price.
Unlike forward contracts, futures contracts are no
rmally traded on an exchange.
To make trading possible, the exchange specifies
certain standardized features of the contract.

Futures contracts

The largest exchanges on which futures contracts t

raded are the CBOT and CME.

Options

Traded market
Types of option
Exercise price & expiration date
American & European options
Four types of participants in options markets

Options
Options are traded both on exchanges and in the
over-the-counter market.
There are two types of option:
Call option gives the holder the right to buy the un
derlying asset by a certain date for a certain price.
Put option gives the holder the right to sell the und
erlying asset by a certain date for a certain price.

Options

The price in the contract is known as the exercise

price or strike price.
The date in the contract is known as the expiratio
n date or maturity.

Options

American options can be exercised at any time up

to the expiration date.
European options can be exercised only on the ex
piration date itself.
Most of the options that are traded on exchanges a
re American.

There are four types of participants in o

ptions markets:
1. Buyers of calls
2. Seller of calls
3. Buyer of puts
4. Seller of puts

Types of traders

Hedgers
Speculators
Arbitrageurs

Types of traders

Hedgers use derivatives to reduce the risk that t

hey face from potential future movements in a ma
rket variable.

Types of traders

Speculators use them to bet on the future directi

on of a market variable.

Types of traders

Arbitrageurs take offsetting positions in two or

more instruments to lock in a profit.

Summary

A forward or futures contract involves an obliga

tion to buy or sell an asset at a certain time in the f
uture for a certain price.
There are two types of options: calls and puts.
A call option gives the holder the right to buy an
asset by a certain date for a certain price.
A put option gives the holder the right to sell an a
sset by a certain date for a certain price.

Three main types of traders can be identified:

hedgers, speculators, and arbitrageurs.
Hedgers are in the position where they face risk
associated with the price of an asset. They use der
ivatives to reduce or eliminate this risk.
Speculators wish to bet on future movements in t
he price of an asset. They use derivatives to get e
xtra leverage.
Arbitrageurs are in business to take advantage of
a discrepancy between prices in two different m
arkets.