Unit Ten: The Nervous

System: B. Special
Senses
Chapter 50: The Eye: II. Receptor and
Neural Function of the Retina
Guyton and Hall, Textbook of Medical Physiology, 12th edition

Anatomy and Physiology of the Retina

Layers of the Retina-functional components

arranged in layers from the outside to the inside

a. Pigmented layer
b. Layer of rods and cones
c. Outer nuclear layer containing the cell bodies of the
rods and cones
d. Outer plexiform layer
e. Inner nuclear layer
f. Inner plexiform layer
g. Ganglionic layer
h. Layer of optic nerve fibers
i. Inner limiting membrane

Anatomy and Physiology of the Retina

Layers of the Retina

Fig. 50.1 Layers of the retina

Anatomy and Physiology of the Retina

Fovea- minute area in the center of the retina

(1 sq mm) capable of acute vision; contains
only cones

Rods and Cones- the major functional segments

of either a rod or cone are:
a.
b.
c.
d.

The
The
The
The

outer segment
inner segment
nucleus
synaptic body

Anatomy and Physiology of the Retina

Fig. 50.3 Schematic drawing of the functional parts

of the rods and cones

Anatomy and Physiology of the Retina

Rods and Cones

a. Light sensitive photochemicals are found in the
outer segment
b. In rods, it is rhodopsin
c. In cones, it is one of three color pigments which
function exactly like rhodopsin

Anatomy and Physiology of the Retina

Rods and Cones

d. In the outer segments of both rods and cones are
large numbers of discs (as many as 1000 per rod or
cone)
e. Pigments are conjugated proteins incorporated
into the membranes of the discs
f. Inner segment contains the usual organelles and
cytoplasm

Anatomy and Physiology of the Retina

Rods and Cones

g. Synaptic body connects with the neuronal cells,
the horizontal and bipolar cells

Pigment Layer of the Retina

a. Melanin prevents light refraction throughout
the eyeball
b. Stores large quantities of vitamin A

Anatomy and Physiology of the Retina

Pigment Layer of the Retina

c. Vitamin A is an important precursor of
the
photosensitive chemicals of rods and
cones

Anatomy and Physiology of the Retina

Fig. 50.4 Membranous structures of t he outer segments of a

rod and cone

Anatomy and Physiology of the Retina

Blood Supply of the Retina

a. Central retinal artery enters with the optic nerve
b. Branches to supply the entire retinal surface
c. Outermost layer is adherent to the choroid which
is also a highly vascular area

Photochemistry of Vision

Rhodopsin-Retinal Visual Cycle

Fig. 50.5 Rhodopsin-retinal visual cycle in the rod

Photochemistry of Vision

Rhodopsin-Retinal Visual Cycle-The Decompositio

by Light Energy
a. When light energy is absorbed by rhodopsin, the
rhodopsin begins to decompose;
b. The cause of this is photoactivation of electrons in
the retinal portion of rhodopsin, which converts
cis into a trans form and cannot bind to the active
site on the protein.
c. This leads to unstable intermediates

Photochemistry of Vision

Reformation of Rhodopsin
a. First step is re-convert to cis form of retinal

b. Requires energy and is catalyzed by retinal isomeras

c. Once formed it binds to the protein and is stable

Photochemistry of Vision

Role of Vitamin A
a. Second pathway converts the trans-retinal to
trans-retinol (one form of vitamin A)
b. The trans-retinol is then converted to cis-retinal
c. Vitamin A is present in the pigment layer of the
retina and in the cytoplasm of rods
d. Excess retinal is converted to vitamin A

Photochemistry of Vision

Excitation of the Rod When Rhodopsin is Activate

by Light
a. The rod receptor potential is hyperpolarizing, not
depolarizing
b. When rhodopsin decomposes, it decreases the
rod membrane conductance for sodium ions
in the outer segment of the rod
c. This causes hyperpolarization of the entire rod
membrane

Photochemistry of Vision

Fig. 50.6 Movement of sodium and potassium ions through the inner
and outer segments of the rod

Photochemistry of Vision

Fig. 50.7 Phototransduction in the outer segment of the photoreceptor membrane

Photochemistry of Vision
Duration of the Receptor Potential and Log Relation
of the Receptor Potential to Light Intensity
a. Receptor potential occurs in 0.3 seconds and
lasts for about 1 second in the rods
b. In the cones it occurs four times as fast
c. Receptor potential is approx. proportional to the
logarithm of the light intensity which allows the
eye to discriminate light intensities through a range
many thousand times as great as would be otherwise

Photochemistry of Vision

Mechanism by Which Rhodopsin Decomposition

Decreases Membrane Sodium Conductance
(Excitation Cascade)

a. Photon activates an electron in the cis-retinal portion

of rhodopsin and leads to the formation of
metarhodopsin
b. Activated rhodopsin acts as an enzyme to activate
many molecules of transducin
c. Activated transducin activates many mcles of
phosphodiesterase

Photochemistry of Vision

Mechanism by Which Rhodopsin Decomposition

Decreases Membrane Sodium Conductance
(Excitation Cascade)
d. Activated phosphodiesterase hydrolyzes cGMP which
allows the sodium channels to close
e. Within a second, rhopdopsin kinase inactivates
metarhodopsin and reversion back to the normal
state with open sodium channels

Photochemistry of Vision

Photochemistry of Color Vision by the Cones

a. Only one of three types of color pigments is present
in each of the different cones
b. Color pigments are blue, green, and red sensitive
pigments

Photochemistry of Vision

Fig. 50.8 Light absorption by the pigment of the rods and the three color receptive cones

Photochemistry of Vision

Automatic Regulation of Retinal Sensitivity

a. Light Adaptation- in bright light the
concentrations of photosensitive chemicals are
reduced
b. Dark Adaptation- in darkness, the retinal and
opsins are converted back into the light
sensitive pigments

Photochemistry of Vision

Fig. 50.9 Dark adaptation, demonstrating he relation of cone adaptation to rod adaptation

Photochemistry of Vision

Other Mechanisms of Light and Dark

Adaptation
a. Change in pupillary size
b. Neural adaptation

Color Vision

Tricolor Mechanism of Color Detection

a. Spectral sensitivities of the three types of
cones
b. Interpretation of color in the Nervous
System

Fig. 50.10 Demonstration of the degree of stimulation of the different color sensitive cones
by monochromatic lights of four colors: blue, green, yellow, and orange

Color Vision
Perception of White Light- equal
stimulation of
the red, green, and blue cones gives the
sensation of seeing white
Color Blindness- when a single group of
cones is
missing, the person is unable to distinguish
some colors from others
a. Red-green
b. Blue weakness

Neural Function of the Retina

Fig. 50.12 Neural organization of the retina; peripheral

area to the left, foveal area to the right

Neural Function of the Retina

Neural Circuitry of the Retina

a. Photoreceptors transmit signals to
the outer plexiform layer where they
synapse with bipolar cells and
horizaontal cells
b. Horizontal cells which transmit
signals horizontally in the outer
plexiform layer from the rods and
cones to bipolar cells
c. Bipolar cells which transmit signals
vertically to the inner plexiform
layer, where they synapse with

Neural Function of the Retina

Neural Circuitry of the Retina

d. Amacrine cells transmit signals
either directly from bipolar cells to
ganglion cells or horizontally from
axons of the bipolar cells to
dendrites of the ganglion cells or
other amacrine cells
e. Ganglion cells which transmit output
signals from the retina through the
optic nerve into the brain

Neural Function of the Retina

Visual Pathway from the Cones to the

Ganglion Cells Functions Differently
from the Rod Pathway
a. (Fig. 50.12) Visual pathway from the fovea
has three neurons in a direct pathway:
cones, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells
b. For rod vision there are four neurons in the
direct pathway: rods, bipolar cells,
amacrine cells, and ganglion cells

Neural Function of the Retina

Neurotransmitters
a. Rods and cones release glutamate
b. Amacrine cells release: GABA, glucine,
dopamine,
acetylcholine, and indolamine; all of which
are
inhibitory

Transmission of Most Signals Occurs in

the
Retinal Neurons by Electrtonic
Conduction, Not
by Aps- direct flow of electric current in the
neuronal cytoplasm and nerve axons from the

Neural Function of the Retina

Lateral Inhibition- enhances visual contrast

and is a function of the horizontal cells

Fig. 50.13 Excitation and inhibition of a retinal area caused by

a beam of light

Neural Function of the Retina

Excitation and Inhibition- two sets of

bipolar
cells provide opposing and inhibitory
signals in the visual pathway
a. Depolarizing bipolar cells
b. Hyperpolarizing bipolar cells

Neural Function of the Retina

Amacrine Cells and Their Functions- 30

types
identified and the functions of 6 have been
characterized
a.
b.
c.
d.

Part of the direct pathway for rod vision

Responds strongly at the onset
Responds to changes in illumination
Movement of a spot across the retina

Neural Function of the Retina

Ganglion Cells and Optic Nerve Fibers

a. 100 million rods, 3 million cones, and 1.6
million
ganglion cells (60 rods and 2 cones
converge on
an individual ganglion cell)
b. Central fovea has 35,000 cones and no
rods
c. Greater sensitivity of the peripheral retina
to weak
light
d. Rods are 30-300x more sensitive to light
than cones; 200 rods converge on a fiber in
the periphery

Neural Function of the Retina

Excitation of the Ganglion Cells

a. Spontaneous continuous APs in the
ganglion cells
b. Transmission of changes in light intensitythe
off-on response

Fig. 50.14 Responses of a ganglion to light

Neural Function of the Retina

Transmission of Signals Depicting

Contrasts in the Visual Scene: The Role
of Lateral Inhibition

Fig. 50.15

Neural Function of the Retina

Transmission of Color Signals by the

Ganglion Cells
a. Single ganglion may be stimulated by
several cones or by only a few
b. Some cells may be stimulated by one
type but inhibited by another
c. Importance of color contrast
mechanisms is that the retina itself
begins to differentiate colors