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Introduction
11
Introduction
2,3 Some
and
definitions
2&3
Someconcepts
concepts
and
definitions
4&5
Properties
a pure
substance
4,5 Properties
of of
a pure
substance
66
Workand
and
heat
Work
heat
77
Thefirst
first
law
of thermodynamics
The
law
of thermodynamics
8,9
Firstlaw
law
analysis
a control
volume
8,9 First
analysis
for for
a control
volume
10
The second law of thermodynamics
10
The second law of thermodynamics
11,12
Entropy
11,1
Entropy
THERMODYNAMICS
13,14
Second law analysis for a control volume
2
COURSE
OUTLINE:
15,16
Cycles law analysis for a control volume
13,1 Second
4

15,1
6

Cycles

ENGR. MANSAF ALI ABRO

For Notes and Self Study

-Books

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Lecture:1
Introduction

What is Thermodynamics

Historical perspective

Philosophy of science note/Application

area of thermodynamics

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Thermodynamics

The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamis (motion), which is heat in motion.

Thermodynamics is an engineering science, which deals with the science of

motion (dynamics) and the transformation of heat (therme) into various
other energy forms.
Examples:

1 The chemical energy of combustion of fossil fuels (oil,coal,gas), is used to

produce heat which in turn is used to provide mechanical energy in
reciprocating engines.

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Thermodynamics
2

Uranium atoms are bombarded asunder and the nuclear

energy
released is used as heat. This heat is converted
in nuclear power plants.

Hydro Electric power plant ( figure )

Wind energy power plants.

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Historical perspective

Although the principles of thermodynamics have been in existence since the

creation of the universe, It emerged as a science with construction of steam
engines in England by Thomas Savery in 1697 and Thomas Newcomen in 1712.

The term thermodynamics was first used in a publication by Lord Kelvin in 1849.
The first thermodynamic textbook was written in 1859 by William Rankine, a
professor at the University of Glasgow.

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Application area of thermodynamics

The heart is constantly pumping blood to all parts of the human body.
Various energy conversions occur in trillions of body cells.

Bodys heat generated is constantly rejected to the environment. We try

to control this heat transfer rate by adjusting of our clothing to the
environmental conditions.

Other applications of thermodynamics are :An ordinary house,

household utensils such as air-conditioning systems, the refrigerator,
the pressure cooker, the water heater, the shower, the iron, and even
the computer and the TV.

On a larger scale, thermodynamics plays a major part in the design and

analysis of automotive engines, rockets, jet engines, and conventional
or nuclear power plants.
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Application area of thermodynamics

The human
body

Airconditioning
systems

Car radiators

Power plants

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Airplanes

Refrigeration systems

LECTURE:2,3
Some concepts and definitions

Macroscopic versus microscopic

Fundamental/Primary and
Secondary/derived dimensions and units
Thermodynamic system and control
volume
Properties and state of a substance
Processes and cycles
Zeroth law of thermodynamics
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Macroscopic versus microscopic approach to study

thermodynamics

How Gas is compressed inside cylinder?

What is Biology of Molecules?

Behavior of the gas particles inside the cylinder.

It would be sufficient to attach a pressure gauge to the container.

Pressure gauge attached outside the container gives macroscopic
approach/Classical thermodynamics that does not require a
knowledge of the behavior of inside individual particles.

A more elaborate approach, based on the average behavior of large

groups of inside individual particles, is called microscopic
approach/Statistical thermodynamics.
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Fundamental/Primary and Secondary/Derived dimensions and

units

Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and

temperature T are selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V, energy E, and
volume V are derived from the primary dimensions and are called
secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions.
TABLE 11
The seven fundamental (or primary)dimensions and their units in
SI
Dimension
Unit
Dimension (Unit)
Length
Meter(m)
Length meter (m)
Mass kilogram (kg)
Kilogram(kg)
Time second (s)
Time
Second(s)
Temperature kelvin (K)
Temperature
Kelvin(K)
Electric current ampere (A)
Amountcurrent
of light candela (cd)
Electric
ampere(A)
Amount of matter mole (mol)
Amount of light
Candela(cd)
Amount of matter

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Mole(mol)

Thermodynamic systems and control

volume
System: Any thing under consideration or study.
Surrounding: The mass or region outside the system is called
the surroundings.
Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separates the
system from its surroundings is called the boundary.
i. Close System/Control mass:
ii. Open System /Control Volume:
Mass flow in and out of a system are
modeled as control volumes(open systems).
iii. Isolated system:
Example
Container on fire with and with
Out lid , and a thermo flask
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Thermodynamic systems and control

volume
Examples: Control Volume
A water heater, a car radiator, a turbine, and a compressor all
involve mass flow and should be analyzed as control volumes
(open systems) instead of as control masses (closed systems) .

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Properties and state of a substance

Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Some familiar

properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.

Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass

of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density.

Extensive properties are those that are dependent of the mass

of a system. Total mass, total volume, and total momentum are
some examples of extensive properties.

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Properties and state of a substance

NOTE:
An easy way to determine
whether a property is intensive or
extensive is to divide the system
into two equal parts with an
imaginary partition, as shown in
Fig. 120. Each part will have the
same value of intensive
properties but half the value of
the extensive properties.

Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties.

Some examples of specific properties are specific volume (v V/m) and
specific total energy (e E/m).
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STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM

State: A system not undergoing any

change is state.

What is your state at the moment?

State properties have fixed values. If

the value of even one property
changes, the state will change to a
different one. In Fig. 123 a system is
shown at two different states.

Thermodynamics deals with

equilibrium states.

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STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM

Equilibrium:
Thermal equilibrium :If the temperature is the same throughout
the entire system, as shown in Fig.124(b)

Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change in pressure at

any point of the system with time.

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STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM

The State Postulate:

The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by

two independent, intensive properties.
Temperature and specific volume, are always independent properties,
and together they can fix the state of a simple compressible system
(Fig. 125).

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Processes and cycles

Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one

equilibrium state to another is called a process.
Path of Process: series of states through which a system passes
during a process is called the path of the process (Fig. 126).

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Processes and cycles

Quasistatic or Quasi-equilibrium process:

When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system

remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times, it
is called a quasistatic, or quasi-equilibrium, process.
It is a slow process so that elements inside may adjust.

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Processes and cycles

isothermal process: T remains

constant.

Isobaric process: pressure P remains

constant.

isochoric (or isometric) process: is

a process during which volume v
remains constant.

Cycle: A system is said to have

undergone a cycle if it returns to its
initial state at the end of the process.
That is, for a cycle the initial and
final
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states are identical.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics

The Zeroth law of thermodynamics:

If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium
with a third body, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other

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Assignment : 1

Enlist as many as intensive , extensive and specific properties.

Enlist examples of thermodynamics in daily life , Each student

should submit unique example.

Explain why the color of the sky is blue?

Assignment must be hand written.

Note:
Submission Date:14-10-2015 (IC LAB)
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Assignment : 2

What is Nuclear Power Plant? Explain its working principle

with a schematic diagram.

What is Hydro Electric Power Plant? Explain its working

principle with a schematic diagram.

What is Wind Energy Power Plant? Explain its working

principle with a schematic diagram.

Assignment must be hand written.

Note:
Submission Date: 19-10-2015 (IC LAB)

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Quiz Number : 1
Q 1 What is Thermodynamics?
Q 2 What is the applications of
thermodynamics?
Q 3 What is difference between classical
and statistical thermodynamics?
Q 4 What is Zeroth law of
thermodynamics?

Time Allowed 10 minutes.

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Lecture 4,5
Properties of a pure substance

The pure substance

Vapor-liquid-solid phase equilibrium
Independent properties
Thermal equations of state

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Pure Substance
A substance that has a fixed
chemical composition
throughout is called a pure
substance.

It is not necessary that a pure substance is made up of

a single chemical element(O2) or compound, however,
A mixture of various chemical elements or compounds
also qualifies as a pure substance as long as the
mixture is homogeneous. (Air) , (N2) , (H20)
What is mixture of Oil and
Water?
Is it a pure substance?

Pure Substance
Phases of A Pure Substance

There are 3 Principal phases

solid
Liquid
gas
Each with different molecular structures.

The substances exist in different phases, e.g. at room

temperature and pressure, copper is solid and water
is a liquid.

Pure Substance
Phase-change Processes of Pure Substances
There are many practical situations where two phases of a pure
substances coexist in equilibrium.
E.g. water exists as a mixture of liquid and vapor in the boiler and etc.
Solid: strong intermolecular bond
Liquid: intermediate intermolecular bonds
Gas: weak intermolecular bond

Solid

Liquid

Gas

Phase-change Processes

Compressed liquid or Saturated liquid

Midway about
sub cooled liquid
It is about to vaporize the vaporization line
It is not about to vaporize
State 4 is a saturated vapor state
A substance at states between
2 and 4 is referred to as a
saturated liquidvapor
mixture since the liquid and
vapor phases coexist in
equilibrium at these states.

Phase-change Processes

nce the phase-change process is completed, we are back to a single-phase

gion again (this time vapor), and further transfer of heat results in
ncrease in both the temperature and the specific volume .

s long as the temperature remains above 100C no condensation will occur

A vapor that is not about to condense (i.e., not a saturated

por) is called a superheated vapor.

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Phase-change Processes
This constant-pressure phase-change
process is illustrated on a T-v diagram in
Fig.
311.

Saturation

It probably came as no surprise to you that water started to

boil at 100C. Strictly speaking, the statement water boils
at 100C is incorrect. The correct statement is water boils
at 100C at 1 atm pressure. The only reason water started
boiling at 100C was because we held the pressure
constant at 1 atm (101.325 kPa). If the pressure inside the
cylinder were raised to 500 kPa by adding weights on top of
the piston, water would start boiling at 151.8C.

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Saturation Temperature and Saturation

Pressure
Saturation is defined as a condition in which a mixture
of vapor and liquid can co-exist together at a given
temperature and pressure.
Saturation pressure its the pressure at which the pure
substance changes its phase, at given temperature.
Saturation temperature : its the temperature at which
the pure substance changes its phase, at given
pressure.
For a pure substance there is a definite relationship
between
saturation
pressure
and
saturation
temperature. The higher the pressure, the higher the
saturation temperature

Saturation
The graphical representation of this relationship between saturation
temperature and saturation pressure at saturated conditions is called the
Liquid Vapor saturation curve

Latent Heat

Latent heat: The amount of energy absorbed or

released during a phase-change process.
Latent heat of fusion: The amount of energy absorbed
during melting. It is equivalent to the amount of energy
released during freezing.
Latent heat of vaporization: The amount of energy
absorbed during vaporization and it is equivalent to the
energy released during condensation.
At 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of fusion of water
is 333.7 kJ/kg and the latent heat of vaporization is
2256.5 kJ/kg.

Why it takes shorter time for a pressure cooker to

cook meal than at STP?

It is clear from Figure that Temperature increases with Pressure. Thus,

a substance at higher pressures boils at higher temperatures. In the
kitchen, higher boiling temperatures mean shorter cooking times and
energy savings. A beef , for example, may take 1 to 2 h to cook in a
regular pan that operates at 1 atm pressure, but only 20 min in a
pressure cooker operating at 3 atm absolute pressure (corresponding
boiling temperature: 134C).

The atmospheric pressure, and thus the boiling temperature of water,

decreases with elevation. Therefore, it takes longer to cook at higher
altitudes than it does at sea level (unless a pressure cooker is used).

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Enthalpy and Entropy

Entropy: Its the measure of dis orderness. To improve or

beat entropy work is needed.

Example: a Maintained room, a fatty man , Global warming

etc

Enthalpy : In the analysis of processes such as power

generation and refrigeration , we come across to face a new
property that is enthalpy.

Sum of internal energy and product of pressure and volume

is termed as ENTHALPY

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Saturated Liquid and Saturated

Vapor States

Tables A4 and A5

Use of A-4

The subscript f is used to

denote
properties of a saturated
liquid, and the
subscript g to denote the
properties of
saturated vapor.

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Quality

During a vaporization process, a substance exists as part liquid and

part
vapor. That is, it is a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor
(Figure)

So, we need to know the proportions of saturated liquid and

saturated vapor. For this a new property is defined as Quality.

Mixture of liquid and vapor

Quality
Quality (x) is defined as the ratio of the mass of the
vapor to the total mass of both vapor and
liquid(mixture)

The quality is zero for the saturated liquid and one for
the saturated vapor (0 x 1)
For example, if the mass of vapor is 0.2 g and the mass
of the liquid is 0.8 g, then the quality is 0.2 or 20%.

masssaturated vapor
masstotal

mg
m f mg

Quality

Consider a tank that contains a saturated liquidvapor mixture. The

volume occupied by saturated liquid is Vf, and the volume occupied
by saturated vapor is Vg. The total volume V is the sum of the two:

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Quality

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Quality

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INTERNAL ENERGY OF
SYSTEM

The internal energy U of a system is the

total of all kinds of energy possessed by
the particles that make up the system.

Usually the internal energy

consists of the sum of the
potential and kinetic energies
of the working gas molecules.

TWO WAYS TO INCREASE THE INTERNAL

ENERGY, U.

+ U
WORK DONE
ON A GAS
(Positive)

HEAT PUT INTO

A SYSTEM
(Positive)

TWO WAYS TO DECREASE THE INTERNAL

ENERGY, U.

Wout
out

ho
t

Qout
-U
Decreas
e

WORK
WORK DONE
DONE BY
BY
EXPANDING
EXPANDING GAS:
GAS: W
W is
is
positive
positive

ho
t

HEAT LEAVES A SYSTEM

Q is negative

Moisture Content
The moisture content of a substance is opposite of its quality.
Moisture is defined as the ratio of the mass of the liquid to the
total mass of both liquid and vapor

Recall the definition of quality x

Then

mf
m

m mg
m

1 x

mg
m

mg
m f mg

Moisture Content

Take specific volume as an example. The

specific volume of the saturated mixture
becomes

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Property Table

Important Definition
o

Critical point - the temperature and pressure above which there

is no distinction between the liquid and vapor phases.

Triple point - the temperature and pressure at which all three

phases can exist in equilibrium.

Sublimation - change of phase from solid to vapor.

Vaporization - change of phase from liquid to vapor.

Condensation - change of phase from vapor to liquid.

Fusion or melting - change of phase from solid to liquid.

Ideal Gas Law

55

Robert Boyle formulates a well-known law that states the pressure of a

gas expanding at constant temperature varies inversely to the volume,
or

P1V1 P2V2 constant

As the result of experimentation, Charles concluded that the pressure of
a gas varies directly with temperature when the volume is held
constant, and the volume varies directly with temperature when the
pressure is held constant, or

V1 T1

V2 T2

or

P1 T1

P2 T2

 By combining the results of

Charles'
and
Boyle's
experiments, the following
relationship can be obtained
The constant in the above
equation is called the ideal gas
constant and is designated by
R; thus the ideal gas equation
becomes
In order to make the equation
applicable to all ideal gas, a
universal gas constant RU is
introduced

Pv
constant
T

Pv RT

or

RU
R
M

PV mRT

 For example the ideal gas constant for air, Rair

57

Rair

( RU ) air 8.3144

0.2871kJ / kg.K
( M ) air
28.96

The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a unit of

mass of a substance by one degree is called the specific heat at
constant volume Cv for a constant-volume process and the specific
heat at constant pressure Cp for a constant pressure process. They
are defined as

u
Cv

and
v

h
CP

 Using the definition of enthalpy (h = u + Pv) and writing the

differential of enthalpy, the relationship between the specific heats
for ideal gases is

h u Pv
dh du RT
CP dt CV dt RdT
CP CV R
The specific heat ratio, k is defined as

CP
k
Cv

 For ideal gases u, h, Cv, and Cp are functions of temperature alone.

The u and h of ideal gases can be expressed as

u u 2 u1 C v (T2 T1 )

h h2 h1 C P (T2 T1 )

Example 2.6

Solution:
given

An ideal gas is contained in a

closed assembly with an initial
pressure and temperature of 220
kPa and 700C respectively. If
the volume of the system is
increased 1.5 times and the
temperature drops to 150C,
determine the final pressure of
the gas.

state 1
P1 220 kPa
T1 70 273K 343 K
state 2
T2 15 273 288 K
V2 1.5V1

From ideal-gas law:

PV
PV
1 1
2 2
T1
T2
V1 288
3
P2
220

10

1.5V1 343
123.15 kPa

Example 2.7
A closed assembly contains 2 kg
of air at an initial pressure and
temperature of 140 kPa and
2100C respectively. If the
volume of the system is doubled
and temperature drops to 370C,
determine the final pressure of
the air. Air can be modeled as an
ideal gas.

Solution:
given

state 1
P1 140 kPa
T1 210 273K 483 K
state 2
T2 37 273 310 K
V2 2 V1

From ideal-gas law:

PV
P2V2
1 1

T1
T2
V1 310
3
140

10

2V1 483
44.93 kPa

P2

Example 2.8
An automobile tire with a volume
of 0.6 m3 is inflated to a gage
pressure of 200 kPa. Calculate the
mass of air in the tire if the
temperature is 20C.
Solution:
given

state1
P 200 100 kPa
T 20 273K 293 K

From ideal-gas law:

PV
m
RT
300 103 mN3 0.6m 2

287 kgNm. K 293K

2.14 kg

THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYAMICS:

The net heat put into a system is equal to the change in
internal energy of the system plus the work done BY the
system.

Q = U + W

final - initial)

Conversely, the work done ON a system is equal to the

change in internal energy plus the heat lost in the process.

SIGN CONVENTIONS FOR FIRST LAW

Heat Q input is
positive
Work BY a gas is
positive
Work ON a gas is
negative
Heat OUT is negative
Q = U + W

+Wout

+Qin

U
-Win

U
-Qout

final - initial)

APPLICATION OF FIRST
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Example 1: In the figure, the gas absorbs
400 J of heat and at the same time does
120 J of work on the piston. What is the
change in internal energy of the system?

Wout =120
J
Qin

Apply First Law:

Q = U + W

400 J

Example 1 (Cont.): Apply First Law

Q is positive: +400 J (Heat IN)
W is positive: +120 J (Work
OUT)
Q = U + W
U = Q - W

U = Q - W
= (+400 J) - (+120 J)
= +280 J

Wout =120 J

Qin
400 J

U = +280 J

Example 1 (Cont.): Apply First Law

Energy is conserved:
The 400 J of input thermal energy is used
to perform 120 J of external work,
increasing the internal energy of the
system by 280 J

The increase in
internal energy
is:

Wout =120 J
Qin
400 J

U = +280 J

FOUR THERMODYNAMIC
PROCESSES:

Isochoric Process:
Isobaric Process:
Isothermal Process:
Adiabatic Process:

V = 0, W = 0
P = 0
T = 0, U = 0
Q = 0

Q = U + W

ISOCHORIC PROCESS:
CONSTANT VOLUME, V = 0, W = 0
0

Q = U + W

Q = U

so that

QIN

+U

QOUT

No Work
Done

-U

HEAT IN = INCREASE IN INTERNAL ENERGY

HEAT OUT = DECREASE IN INTERNAL ENERGY

ISOCHORIC EXAMPLE:
No Change in
volume:

P1

PA
TA

PB
TB

V1= V2
400 J
Heat input
increases P
with const.
V

400 J heat input

increases internal
energy by 400 J and
zero work is done.

ISOBARIC PROCESS:
CONSTANT PRESSURE, P = 0

Q = U + W

But

W = P V

QIN

+U

QOUT

Work
Out

-U

Work
In

HEAT IN = Wout + INCREASE IN INTERNAL ENERGY

HEAT OUT = Wout + DECREASE IN INTERNAL ENERGY

ISOBARIC EXAMPLE (Constant Pressure):

P

VA
TA

400 J

Heat input
increases V
with const.
P

V1

VB
TB

V2

400 J heat does 120 J

of work, increasing
the internal energy by
280 J.

ISOBARIC WORK
P

VA
TA

PA = PB

400 J

V1

V2

Work = Area under PV curve

Work P V

VB
TB

ISOTHERMAL PROCESS:
CONST. TEMPERATURE, T = 0, U = 0

Q = U + W
W

ANDQ =

QIN

U = 0

Work
Out

QOUT
U = 0

NET HEAT INPUT = WORK OUTPUT

WORK INPUT = NET HEAT OUT

Work
In

ISOTHERMAL EXAMPLE (Constant T):

PA

A
B

PB

U = T =
0
PAVA =
PBVB

V2

V1

Slow compression at
constant
temperature: ----No change in U.

ISOTHERMAL EXPANSION (Constant T):

PA

A
B

PB

U = T = 0

VA
VB

400 J of energy is
absorbed by gas as 400
J of work is done on gas.
T = U = 0

PAVA = PBVB
TA = TB

Isothermal Work

VB
W nRT ln
VA

ADIABATIC PROCESS:
NO HEAT EXCHANGE, Q = 0

Q = U + W ; W = -U or U = -W
U = -W

W = -U
U

Work
Out
Q = 0

+U

Work
In

Work done at EXPENSE of internal energy

INPUT Work INCREASES internal energy

ADIABATIC EXAMPLE:
PA

A
B

PB
V1

Insulated
Walls: Q =
0

Expanding gas
does work with
zero heat loss.
Work = -U

V2

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Work and heat

Work
Heat

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The first law of

thermodynamics

Representations of the first law

Specific internal energy for general
materials
Specific enthalpy for general materials
Specific heat capacity
Caloric equations of state
Time-dependency
Final comments on conservation
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First law analysis for a control volume

Detailed derivations of control volume

equations
Mass conservation in brief
Energy conservation in brief
Some devices
Introduction to the Rankine cycle
Preview: equations of continuum
mechanics
Problems
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The second law of

thermodynamics

Statements of the second law

Reversible and irreversible processes
Analysis of Carnot heat engines
The absolute temperature scale
Analysis of Carnot refrigerators and heat
pumps
Rejected thermal energy on a national
scale
Problems
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Entropy

Second law in terms of entropy

Entropy for ideal gases
Isentropic relations for an ideal gas
Two cycles
Entropy of mixing
Summary statement of thermodynamics
Problems

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Second law analysis for a control volume

Rankine
Rankine v/s Carnot
Cycle efficiency

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Cycles

Brayton
Otto
Diesel

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