The Elastic Stress Field Approach

The Stress Intensity Factor

The three basic modes of crack surface displacements

Derivation of the Elastic Stress Field Equations

- Concepts of plane stress and plane

strain
- Equilibrium equations
- Compatibility equations for strains
- Airy stress function
- Biharmonic equation
- Complex stress functions:
Westergaard function for biaxially
loaded plate (Mode I)
- Mode I stress / displacement fields
- Mode I stress intensity factor

Westergard (1939), Irwin (1957)

3
cos 1 sin sin
2
2
2
2r

3
cos 1 sin sin
2
2
2
2r

XY

3
sin cos cos
2
2
2
2r

Linear Elastic Crack-tip Fields

(general case)
Mode I:

Mode II:

Mode III:

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
STRESS FIELDS
- The stress and displacement formulas may
reduced to particularly simple forms:

-Details of the applied loading enters

only through K !!!
for the infinite plate: K = (*a)1/2

- But for a given Mode there is a

characteristic shape of the field !!!

- Principle of Superposition: for a given

Mode, K terms from superposed loadings
are additive
Angular distributions of crack-tip stresses for the
three modes (rectangular: left; polar:right)

We consider next some other cases apart from the cracked infinite plate

- Semi infinite edge notched specimens

- Finite width centre cracked specimens
- Finite width edge notched specimens
edge notched

-Crack-line loading
-Elliptical / Semielliptical cracks

K I C * a * f

finite width

Finite-width centre-craked specimens:

f(a/W)
Irwin:

K I a

W
a
tan

a W

Isida: 36 term power series

Brown:
approx.

a
a
a
f
1 0.256
1.152

W
W
W

Feddersen:

a
K I a sec

a
12.200

Semi infinite edgenotched specimens:

Free edges: crack opens
more than in the infinite
plate resulting in 12%
increase in stress

K I 1.12 * a

Single edge
notched (SEN)

SEN:
Finite-width
edge-notched
specimens:

K I a *

0.5% accurate

a
a
1.122 0.231
10.550

W
W

Double edge notched

(DEN)
2

a
21.710

for a/W < 0.6

DEN:
0.5% accurate
for any a/W

a
a
1.122 1.122
0.820

W
W

K I a *

a
30.382

a
3.768

W
2a
1
W

a
3.040

TWO IMPORTANT SOLUTIONS FOR PRACTICAL USE

* Crack-line Loading
(P: force per unit thickness)
K IA

ax
ax

K IB

ax
ax

for centrally located force:

KI

KI decrease when crack

length increases !

Crack under internal pressure (force per unit thickness is

now P.dx, where P is the internal pressure)
KI

Very useful solution:

- Riveted, bolted plates
- Internal Pressure
problems

KI

a
P

ax
P
dx
ax
a

x
dx
arcsin
a
a
a2 x2
2a

2 Pa

ax
ax
dx

ax
a x

same result by end loading with

P a
0

* Elliptical Cracks

actual cracks often initiate at surface

discontinuities or corners in structural
components !!!

We start considering idealised

situations:
from embeded elliptical crack to
semielliptical surface cracks

Example: corner crack in a

longitudinal section of a
pipe-vessel intersection in
a pressure vessel

The embeded (infinite plate) elliptical

crack under Mode I loading

Irwin solution for Mode I:

a
a
2
2
sin 2 cos
KI

c

Where : elliptic integral of the second type

1 sin 2 sin 2 d

with:

sin

a/c

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

1.000

1.016

1.051

1.097

1.151

1.211

1.277

1.345

1.418

1.493

1.571

KI varies along
the elliptical
crack front

max. at =/2:
min. at = :

KI

1
* a

a 2 / c
KI

a2
c2
circular crack:
KI

2
* a

During crack growth an

elliptical crack will tend to
become circular:
important in fatigue
problems

The semi- elliptical surface crack in a plate of finite dimensions

under Mode I loading
In practice elliptical cracks will generally occur as semi-elliptical surface cracks or quarterelliptical corner cracks
Best solutions for semielliptical:
FEM calculations from Raju-Newman:

Raju I.S.,Newman J.C. Jr. Stress Intensity Factors for Two Symmetric
Corner Cracks, Fracture Mechanics, ASTM STP 677, pp. 411-430 (1979).

SUPERPOSITION OF STRESS INTENSITY FACTORS

1) Crack under
Internal Pressure:

K IA K IB K IC K ID 0

K ID K IC a

H P

2) Semi-elliptical
Surface Crack in a
Cylindrical
Pressure Vessel:

R
B

KI K

H
I

K IP P a

K I H

C H a CPR a

K IP

CP a

CP 1
B

K IP

3) Cracks growing
from both sidesof a
loaded hole where
the hole is small
with respect to the
crack

a
P a
f

2
W
2 a

K I

where P is the force per unit

thickness

CRACK TIP PLASTICITY

First approximation:

Better approaches

-selected shape: better size estimation

1
ry
2

YS

-Irwin

-Dudgale

-Better shape but first order

approximation for the size

Irwin approach:
- stress redistribution; elastic plastic; plane stress

rp 2 * ry

First Order Aproximations of Plastic Zone Shapes

Through-thickness plastic zone in a
plate of intermediate thickness

Plastic zone shape from Von Mises

yield criterion

Empirical Rules to estimating Plane Stress vs. Plane

Strain conditions:

-Plane Stress: 2.ry B

-Plane Strain: 2.ry < 1/10 B

Planes of maximum shear stress: location of the planes of

maximum shear stress at the tip of the crack for plane stress
(a) and plane strain (b) conditions

Deformation Modes: plane strain (a) and plane stress (b)

FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
Is K a useful parameter to characterise fracture
toughness?

Under conditions of:

- small scale plasticity
- plane strain

Kc = KIC
Variation in KC with specimen thickness in a high
strength maraging steel

KIC is a material property:

fracture toughness of
linear elastic materials

Effect of Specimen Thickness on

Mode I Fracture Toughness
Limits to the Validity of LEFM:
After considerable experimental work
the following minimum specimen size
requirements were established to be in
a condition of :
- plane strain
- small scale plasticity

K
a, B, W - a 2.5 IC
YS

1
a, B, W - a 2.5 * 2 *
2

Remember: Empirical Rules to estimate Plane Strain conditions:

K IC

YS

2.5 * * 2ry 8 * (2ry )

2*ry < 1/10 B

LEFM Testing: ASTM E-399, committee E8 Fatigue and Fracture

Fatigue pre-cracked specimens !

KI

LOAD * S
a
*
f

B *W 3 2
W

where

a
f

W

ASTM Standard Single Edge notched Bend

(SENB) Specimen

a
3

12

KI

a
a
a
a
1.99 1 2.15 3.93
2.7

W
W
W
W

32
a
a

2 1 2 1
W
W

LOAD
a
*
f

B *W 1 2
W

where

a
W

ASTM Standard Compact Tension

(CT) Specimen

a
2
W

0.886 4.64
13.32

W

1
W

a
a
a
14.72
5.6

W
W
W
2

32

Clip gauge and ist

attachment to the specimen
ANALYSIS
-Line at 5% offset (95 % of tg OA equivalent
to 2 % crack extension
- Ps: intersection 5 % offset with P-v record
- if there is a P value > Ps before Ps, then
PQ = Ps
- check if Pmax / PQ < 1.10, then
- go to K(PQ): calculate KQ (conditional KIC)
- check if for KQ the specimen size
requirements are satisfied, then
- check if crack front is symmetric, then
KQ = KIC (valid test)

Principal types of load-displacement plots obtained

during KIC testing

Material Toughness Anisotropy

To provide a common scheme for
describing material anisotropy, ASTM
standardized
the
following
six
orientations:
L-S, L-T, S-L, S-T, T-L, and T-S.
The first letter denotes the direction of
the applied load; the second letter
denotes the direction of crack growth. In
designing
for
fracture
toughness,
consideration of anisotropy is very
important, as different orientations can
result in widely differing fracturetoughness values.

When the crack plane is parallel to the rolling direction,

segregated impurities and intermetallics that lie in these
planes represent easy fracture paths, and the toughness
is low. When the crack plane is perpendicular to these
weak planes, decohesion and crack tip blunting or stress
reduction occur, effectively toughening the material. On
the other hand, when the crack plane is parallel to the
plane of these defects, toughness is reduced because
the crack can propagate very easily.

Applications of Fracture Mechanics to Crack Growth at Notches

Numerical Solution:

Newman 1971

2a

2c

l
L* : transitional crack length
S

L*

c
1.12 * K t 2 1
Example:

2c = 5 mm, L* = 0.25 mm
2c = 25 mm, L* =
1.21 mm

For crack length l 10% c: crack

effective length is from tip to tip!!!
(including notch)

Consequences:

plane
window

Edge crack at window

Crack in groove of a pressurized cylinder

Lager effective crack length by a contribution of a notch !

For relatively small (5-10 % notch size) cracks at a hole or at a notch, the stress intensity factor K is
approximately the same as for a much larger crack with a length that includes the hole diameter / notch
depth.
Reading: Fatige and the Comet Airplane (taken from S. Suresh, Fatigue of Materials)

SUBCRITICAL CRACK PROPAGATION IN COMPONENTS

WITH PREXISTING FLAWS

Fatigue

Sustained load crack growth behaviour

- stress corrosion cracking

- cracking due to embrittlement by internal or external gaseous

hydrogen
- liquid metal embrittlement
- creep and creep crack growth

Fatigue Crack Propagation

Kmax = KIC (1-R) !!

Fatigue crack growth rate curve da/dN - K

How to describe crack growth rate curves: crack growth laws

Paris Law:

Forman:

da
C (K ) m
dN

only Region II, no R effects

da
C (K ) m

dN (1 R ) K IC K

also Region III

Complete
curve

McEvily:

1 K th
da

K
C (K ) m
dN
K max

1 K
IC

n1

n3

complete crack
growth rate curve

n2

da
K
2

C (K K th ) 1
dN
K IC K max

n1, n2, n3,

empirically adjusted
parameters

the three
regions

EXAMPLES
of Crack
Growth rate
Behaviour

Fatigue crack growth rate for Structural

steel (BS4360) at room temperature and
with cycling frequencies 1-10 Hz.

Fatigue crack growth rate vs. K for

various structural materials at low R values

Influence of R on
fatigue crack growth
in Al 2024-T3 Alclad
sheet

Effect of R:

da
f (K , R)
dn

CRACK
CLOSURE

Crack closure effects

Measuring the crack opening stress by

means of a stress-displacement curve

Elber:
Actually:

K eff K max K op
K eff K max K min,eff

da
f (K , R) f K eff
dn

Elber obtained the empirical relationship

Schijve:

K eff
K

K eff
K

U 0.5 0.4 R

U 0.55 0.35 R 0.1R 2

Closure Mechanisms

Sustained load crack growth behaviour

Time to Failure Tests:

Initial KI !!!

preferred
technique in
the past

Generalised sustained load crack growth behaviour

KISCC

KIC or KQ

Modern techniques: based on fracture mechanics parameter K !

SPECIMENS
Increasing or decreasing K specimens

crack- line
wedge-loaded
specimen
(CLWL)

bolt loaded
cantilever beamspecimen (DCB)

tapered double
cantilever beamspecimen
(TDCB):
constant K !!!

Difference in crack growth behaviour for increasing K (cantilever beam) and

decreasing K (modified CLWL or DCB specimens)

Decreasing K specimens:
Entire crack growth with one
specimen

Advantages:

Self stressed and portable

Clear steady state and arrest

Disadvantages:

Corrosion product wedging:

gives higher crack growth rate
at a given nominal KI.

Example:

Outdoor exposure stress corrosion cracking propagation in 7000 series Al-alloy plate