Cell Division

Cell division
Is a process where a cell (parent cell) divides into

two/four cell (daughter cell)

In mitotic division, the daughter cells can become
parent cells and undergo subsequent division
In meiotic division, the daughter cells will be
permanently transformed and cannot divide again
For unicellular organisms such as the Amoeba, one
cell division reproduces an entire organism
Cell division can create progeny from multi-cellular
organisms, such as plants that grow from cuttings

Cell division also enables sexually reproducing

organisms to develop from one-celled zygote, which

itself was produced by cell division from gametes
Cell division allows for continual renewal and repair
of the organism

Prokaryotes cell division

Bacteria divide by binary fission.
-the single, circular bacterial chromosome is replicated
-replication begins at the origin of replication and
proceeds bidirectionally
-new chromosomes are partitioned to opposite ends of
the cell
-a septum forms to divide the cell into 2 cells

E.Coli is undergoing the process of binary fission

Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes must divide their nucleus (and other

organelles such as mitochondria) in preparation for

cell division (mitosis or meiosis)
Before the nucleus divides, the genetic material
replicates

Eukaryotic Chromosomes
Eukaryotic chromosomes
-linear chromosomes
-every species has a different number of chromosomes
-composed of chromatin a complex of DNA and
proteins
-heterochromatin not expressed
-euchromatin expressed regions

Chromosomes are very long and must be condensed to

fit within the nucleus.
-nucleosome DNA wrapped around a core of 8
histone proteins
-nucleosomes are spaced 200 nucleotides apart along
the DNA
-further coiling creates the 30-nm fiber or solenoid

The solenoid is further compacted:

-radial loops are held in place by scaffold proteins
-scaffold of proteins is aided by a complex of proteins
called condensin
karyotype: the particular array of chromosomes of an
organism

Chromosomes must be replicated before cell division.

-Replicated chromosomes are connected to each other
at their centromeres
-cohesin complex of proteins holding replicated
chromosomes together
-sister chromatids: 2 copies of the chromosome
within the replicated chromosome

Homologous Chromosomes?
In body cells, chromosomes occur as pairs.

Each set of chromosomes is a homologous pair; each

member is a homologous chromosome or
homologue.
One member of each homologous pair is inherited from
the male parent, the other member from the female
parent.
look alike, have the same length and centromere position,
and have a similar banding pattern when stained.
A location on one homologue contains genes for the same
trait that occurs at this locus on the other homologue,
although the genes may code for different variations of
that trait (called alleles).

Cell cycle
Series of events that take place in a eukaryotic cell

leading to its duplication through cell division

Length of a complete cell cycle varies among cell
types
5 main phases

G1 (Growth Phase 1)
S (Synthesis)
G2 (Growth Phase 2)
M (Mitosis)
C (Cytokinesis)

Interphase

G1 Phase
The first phase within interphase, from the end of

the previos M phase till the beginning of DNA

synthesis is called G1
During this phase, the biosynthetic activities of the
cell, which had been considerably slowed down
during M phase, resume at high rate
This phase is marked by synthesis of various
enzymes that are required in S phase, mainly those
needed for DNA replication
Duration of G1 is highly variable, even among
different cells of the same species

S Phase
Starts when DNA synthesis commences: when it is

complete, all of the chromosomes have been

replicated, eg: each chromosome has two (sister)
chromatids)
The amount of DNA in the cell has effectively doubled,
though the ploidy of the cell remains the same
Rates of RNA transcription and protein synthesis are
very slow during this phase
An exception to this is histone production, most of
which occurs during the S phase
The duration of S phase is relatively constant among
cells of the same species

G2 Phase
Cell undergoes a period of rapid growth to prepare

for mitosis
Significant protein synthesis occurs during this
phase, mainly involving the production of
microtubules, which are required during the process
of mitosis
Inhibition of protein synthesis during G2 phase
prevents the cell from undergoing mitosis

Control of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is controlled by both internal and

external signals.
A signal is a molecule that either stimulates or
inhibits a metabolic event.
Growth factors are external signals received at the
plasma membrane.

Cell Cycle Checkpoints

There

appear to be three checkpoints where the cell

cycle either stops or continues onward, depending on
the internal signals it receives.

Researchers

have identified a family of proteins

called cyclins, internal signals that increase or
decrease during the cell cycle.

Cyclin

must be present for the cell to move from the

G1 stage to the S stage, and from the G2 stage to the
M stage.

 The

cell cycle stops at the G2 stage if DNA has not

finished replicating; stopping the cell cycle at this stage
allows time for repair of possible damaged DNA.

Also,

the cycle stops if chromosomes are not

distributed accurately to daughter cells.

DNA

damage also stops the cycle at the G 1 checkpoint

by the protein p53; if the DNA is not repaired, p53
triggers apoptosis

Mitosis
Method of eukaryotic cell division that produces two

genetically identical cells

All cells in an organism except sperm and eggs are
produced by mitosis
Basis of asexual reproduction
5 stages;

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis

Interphase
The chromosomes are extended long threads that

cannot be visibly identified. The DNA of the

chromosomes is replicated during this phase,
resulting in duplication of the genetic material

Prophase
The duplicated chromosomes condense and become

visible as distinct sister chromatids

The nuclear envelope breaks down and the
centrosomes move toward the poles of the cell
The mitotic spindle attached to a specialized
structure called the kinetochore, located at the
centromere of each replicated chromosome

Chromosome
consisting of 2
sister chromatids

Pair of
centrioles

Centromere
Aster
Prophase

Metaphase
The replicated chromosomes align at the equator

(metaphase plate) of the cell

Anaphase
The sister chromatids separate and are moved

toward opposite poles of the cell by the spindle.

The cell begins to elongate towards the poles

Telophase
The cell continues to elongate throughout telophase
The mitotic spindle breaks down
A new nuclear envelope forms at each end of the cell
The chromosomes within begin to unfold into

chromatin

Cytokinesis
The cytoplasm and organelles are evenly divided

between the two new cells during cytokinesis,

completing the processs of cell division
Cytokinesis differs skightly in animals and plants.

Animal: a ring of microfilaments contracts in the center of the

elongated cell, producing a cleavage furrow that eventually
pinches off the two cells
Plant: a cell plate is formed as vesicles containing cell
membrane materials fuse together along the equator of the
cell. Once the cell has fused with the plasma membrane and
the two cells are completely divided, cellulose is secreted to
form the cell wall.

What is the purpose of all of this?

Mitosis is the way cells (within tissues and

organisms) grow and repair

Growth
Repair

Meiosis
Method of cell division that takes place in sexually

reproducing organisms specifically for the creation of

gametes (egg and sperm cells)
Results in the production of 4 haploid cells, each is
genetically different
To produce 4 cells, meiosis requires two rounds of
cell division

Meiosis 1
Meiosis 2

Meiosis I
Homologous pairs of each chromosome join and

might exchange genetic material

The homologous chromosome are pulled to opposite
poles in the cell, at which the cell separates, resulting
in two cells
Each chromosome remains in the duplicated state
and is made up of two sister chromatids

Occurs in 5 stage similar to mitosis

Prophase 1
Metaphase 1
Anaphase 1
Telophase 1
Cytokinesis 1

During the S phase of interphase (prior to start of

meiosis I), each chromosome replicates to produce

two sister chromatids
The 2 genetically homologous sister chromatids
remain attached at their centromeres

Prophase 1
Synapsis and crossing over occurred

Synapsis two homologous chromosome condense and

combine to form complexes called tetrads
Crossing over exchange of genetic material that takes place
between these homologous chromosomes along several
junctions known as chiasmata.

Result of crossing over cells are genetically variable

Other events is similar to those occurred during

prophase in mitosis

Metaphase 1
The tetrads align along the metaphase plate of the

cells

Anaphase 1
The homologous chromosome of each tetrads

separate and are pulled toward opposite poles of the

cell by the spindle
The side of the cell toward which a homologous
chromosome is pulled is random, depending only on
the orientation of the tetrad.

Telophase 1
Identical to telophase in mitosis
Cell continues to elongate and the mitotic spindle

breaks down
A new nuclear envelope forms at each end of the cell
and the chromosomes within unfold into chromatin

Cytokinesis 1
Identical to cytokinesis in mitosis
End of this stage, 2 genetically different haploid cells

have been produced

Each chromosome is still in the dulpicated state and
is made up of two sister chromatids
For human; starts with one cell containing 46
chromosomes (23 pairs) to 2 cells containing 23
chromosomes
Result of crossing over- each chromosome is the
mixture of the original homologous

Meiosis II
Follows similar steps as meiosis I in the creation of

two or more cells

Chromosome do not replicate between Meiosis I and
Meiosis II.
The result is 4 haploid cells genetically different from
one another

Prophase II
The chromosome within the haploid cell condense
The spindle attaches to the kinetochore of each

chromosome
The nuclear envelope breaks down and the
centrosomes move toward the poles of the cell

Metaphase II
The chromosome align along the center of the

metaphase plate

Anaphase II
The sister chromatids separate and are moved

toward opposite poles of the cell by the spindle

Cell begins to elongate towards the poles

Telophase II
The cell continues to elongate and the mitotic

spindle breaks down

A new nuclear envelope forms at each end of the cell

Cytokinesis II
The cytoplasm and organelles are divided between

the two cells, completing the process of cell division

4 genetically different haploid cells have been
produced

How can a male (diploid; 46 chromosomes) and a

female (diploid; 46 chromosomes) produce a child

with 46 chromosomes?
Why do you look somewhat similar - but distinctly

different - from your brothers and sisters, and from

your parents, if you all basically have the same
chromosomes? Each meiosis and fertilization is
literally like a 'roll of a dice' - so no two individuals
are alike!

1. Crossing Over: The chromosomes you receive from your

mom's egg and your dad's sperm and NOT the same
chromosomes that your mom and dad have. They are new,
'shuffled' versions of their chromosomes - and you only get
ONE of them from each parental unit....
2. Independent assortment: Homologues line up or
"shuffle" randomly on the metaphase plate in Meiosis I. With
23 chromosomes assorting independently, there are 2^23, or
8 million, possible assortments of chromosomes inherited
for every cell!!
3. Random fertilization: The ovum has 8 million
possible chromosome combinations, so does the sperm cell. 8
million x 8 million = 64 trillion possible diploid
combinations in EACH AND EVERY zygote! WOW!!