RF Antenna

RF Antenna
(RT-RFA)
June 2001
Copyright 2001 Global Wireless Education Consortium
RT-RFA 1
RT-RFA
All rights reserved. This module, comprising presentation slides with notes,
exercises, projects and Instructor Guide, may not be duplicated in any way
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without the written permission of the Global Wireless Education Consortium.
Making copies of this module, or any portion, for any purpose other than your
own, is a violation of United States copyright laws.
Trademarked names appear throughout this module. All trademarked names

have been used with the permission of their owners.
June 2001
Copyright 2001 Global
RT-RFA 2
RT-RFA
Partial support for this curriculum material
was provided by the National Science Foundation's
Course, Curriculum, and Laboratory Improvement
Program under grant DUE-9972380 and Advanced
Technological Education Program under grant
DUE9950039.
GWEC EDUCATION PARTNERS: This material is
subject to the legal License Agreement signed by your
institution. Please refer to this License Agreement for
restrictions of use.
June 2001
RT-RFA 3
Table of Contents
Overview
Learning Objectives
Antennas as Part of All Communications Systems
Fundamental Antenna Characteristics
Antenna Radiation Patterns
Antenna Types
Antenna Configuration Requirements
Signal Coverage Problems
Advanced System Antennas
Antenna Covers and Support Structures
Contributors
June 2001
5
6
7
12
19
27
49
56
63
71
76
RT-RFA 4
Overview
How antennas transmit and receive signals
Fundamental characteristics of antennas
Types and features of antennas
Signal coverage problems and how to overcome them
How to perform return loss measurement and antenna
gain measurement
June 2001
RT-RFA 5
Learning Objectives
Explain how an antenna transmits and receives signals
Explain fundamental characteristics of antennas
including radiated power, antenna gain, beam width,
and front-back ratio
Describe features of different types of antennas
Describe the different types of radiation patterns
Explain why and how to measure impedance

Explain strategies to address signal coverage problems
Explain antenna diversity and isolation strategies
Perform a return loss measurement on an antenna

Perform an antenna gain measurement
June 2001
RT-RFA 6
Antennas as Part of All

Communications
Systems
June 2001
RT-RFA 7
Antenna System
Components
Transmit antenna
Receive antenna
Duplexer
Multicoupler
Combiner
Isolator
Tuning cavities
Cabling
June 2001
RT-RFA 8
Antenna Operation
Antenna - a series of metal wires, rods, or other shapes
Transmits when an electric current of radio frequency passes
through it
Current generates electromagnetic field around

antenna
Electromagnetic field moves outward from antenna
At receiver antenna, does same thing in reverse
Tuned to a particular radio wavelength ()
Simple fraction or multiple of that length: /2, /4, etc.
Most common length is one-half a wavelength, or /2
June 2001
RT-RFA 9
Antennas, Frequency,
and Wavelength
Resonant length changes with frequency and
wavelength of electric signal
The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength, and the
shorter the required antenna
The lower the frequency, the longer the wavelength, and the
longer the required antenna
Cellular band antenna

Wavelength for cellular telephone transmission is about 0.33 m
Length of a cellular antenna should be 0.165 m (/2)
June 2001
RT-RFA 10
Assorted Facts
Antenna Radiation Pattern
Same radiation pattern and gain for transmit and receiveantenna
Transceiver
Transmitter and receiver electronics housed in a single box
Generally use a single antenna for both
Impedance Match
Coaxial cable must be terminated with characteristic impedance for
maximum power to be passed to antenna
If not, reflections will reduce power passed to antenna and cause
protection circuitry in transmitter to reduce its output power
RF Transmission Planning
Optimizes signal strength received by base station and mobile station
regardless of their positions in the network
Choice and configuration of antenna system plays an important role
June 2001
RT-RFA 11
Fundamental
Antenna
Characteristics
June 2001
RT-RFA 12
Radiated Power
Mean power received at any large distance is calculated by the Friis
free-space equation:
Pt Gt Gr
Pr ( d )
2 2
( 4 ) d L
Pt = transmitted power
Pr(d) = received power, a function of transmitter-receiver distance
Gt = transmitter antenna gain
Gr = receiver antenna gain
d = transmitter-receiver separation in meters
L = miscellaneous loss factor for loss not related to propagation
L = 1 means no loss
L > 1 means loss
= wavelength in meters
June 2001
RT-RFA 13
Antenna Bandwidth
Range of frequencies radiated where lowest and
highest frequencies have radiated power that is 3 dB
less than the radiated power at frequency with
maximum power, f(max)
Upper frequency, f(up), is frequency above f(max) where power
is 3 dB lower than f(max)
Lower frequency, f(low), is frequency below f(max) where
power is 3 dB lower than f(max)
As a percent, B(p), of center frequency, f(ctr)
f up f low
100%
B p
f ctr
June 2001
RT-RFA 14
Antenna Gain
Ratio of antennas maximum radiation intensity to
maximum radiation intensity from a reference antenna with
same input power
dBiIf reference antenna isisotropic source of 100% efficiency
dBd If reference antenna is simple dipole of typical efficiency
Gdip (gain with respect to dipole antenna) is 2.15 dB less than Gi (gain
with respect to isotropic antenna)
Antenna gain, Gant, is a function of wavelength
Gant
4Ae
2
Ae = Effective antenna area
Ae ap Aphysical
June 2001
RT-RFA 15
Antenna Beam Width

Antenna achieves gain by concentrating its radiation
pattern in a certain direction
The greater the gain, the narrower the beam width
Beam width is width of radiated pattern where signal

strength is one-half that of maximum signal strength
At this point, signal is 3 dB less than that of the maximum
Angle between left and right points that are 3 dB down from
maximum is beam angle or beam width
For unidirectional antennas, resulting major lobe of

radiation pattern has a certain width
Common beam widths for cellular antennas: 60, 90, and 120.
June 2001
RT-RFA 16
Antenna Front-Back
Ratio
Measure of antennas ability to focus radiated power in
intended direction successfully
And not interfere with other antennas behind it
Referred to as f-b ratio or f/b ratio

Ratio of radiated power in intended direction to radiated
power in opposite direction
Ratio of the two gains is the f/b ratio:
P0
f/b ratio
P180
June 2001
RT-RFA 17
Frequency Re-Use
6
6
5
5
1
7
4
1
7
4
2
2
3
6
5
1
7
Same frequencies used

repeatedly in all
directions
Ability to radiate power in
desired direction is
critical
June 2001
RT-RFA 18
Antenna Radiation
Patterns
June 2001
RT-RFA 19
Isotropic Radiation
Pattern
Characteristics
Completely non-directional antenna

Radiates and receives equally well in all directions
Theoretical point source or receiver
Radiation pattern is spherical
Exists only as a mathematical concept

There is no preferential radiation in one direction
Used as a reference to specify gain of a practical

antenna
June 2001
RT-RFA 20
Omnidirectional
Radiation Pattern
Horizontal Pattern
June 2001
Vertical Pattern
RT-RFA 21
Unidirectional Radiation
Pattern
Horizontal Pattern
June 2001
Vertical Pattern
RT-RFA 22
Radiated Power
Compared
Ideal isotropic radiator
Theoretical halfwave dipole antenna
Practical antenna
dBd
2.15
dB
June 2001
dBi
RT-RFA 23
Properties of
Unidirectional
Antennas
Provide increased gain in a limited direction
Multiply use of separate channels by virtue of enabling
sectorization
Do not overcome major disadvantages of
omnidirectional antennas such as co-channel
interference
June 2001
RT-RFA 24
Antenna Polarization
Polarization is an important property of a radio wave
Radio waves have magnetic field H & electrical field E
Orientation of electrical field determines polarization
If electrical field is vertical, radio wave is polarized vertically
If electrical field is horizontal, radio wave is polarized
horizontally
Antenna of receiver should be oriented in same

direction as polarization of transmitter antenna
Mobile antennas should be in the same orientation for
best reception
This is not always possible with hand-held phones
June 2001
RT-RFA 25
Voltage Standing Wave

Ratio (VSWR)
Ratio of maximum voltage to minimum voltage of
standing wave along transmission line
Measure of impedance match between antenna and
transmission line or coaxial cable
The closer VSWR is to one, the greater
the efficiency of electrical power transfer
Formula
Pr = Power, reflected
Pi = Power, incident
June 2001
VSWR
Pr
1
Pi
Pr
1
Pi
RT-RFA 26
Antenna Types
June 2001
RT-RFA 27
Radiation Pattern of
Half-wave Dipole
Antenna
3-D view
Vertical section
June 2001
Horizontal section
RT-RFA 28
Omnidirectional
Antennas
Omnidirectional antenna
June 2001
Hertz antenna
RT-RFA 29
Marconi Antenna
June 2001
RT-RFA 30
Omnidirectional
Antenna Limitations
Radiates and receives equally well in all directions in
the horizontal plane
Signal power spread uniformly and only small percentage of
radiated power reaches receiver
Receiving antenna receives signals equally well from all

directions in horizontal plane
For mobile transmitter to be distinguished, it must be stronger
than other signals and the background noise
Limited bandwidth efficiency

Very limited re-use of frequencies in adjoining areas
June 2001
RT-RFA 31
Radiating Coaxial Cable

Antenna
Protective sheath
Outer conductor
with holes
Dielectric
Inner conductor
Radiating Coaxial Cable Antenna

RF in from transmitter
RF out (terminated)
Radiating Cable Radiation Pattern
June 2001
RT-RFA 32
Multi-antenna System
Examples
Pair of directional antennas mounted in different
directions
Radiation patterns point in opposite directions
Series of antennas around a given building

Used when omnidirectional antennas would not be effective
Series of antennas located on the side of a building

Minimizes interference with other receivers
June 2001
RT-RFA 33
Panel Antennas
Substrate
Radiating
panel
Transmitter
June 2001
RT-RFA 34
Unidirectional Antennas
Referred to as beam antennas
Focus beams in one direction
Concentrate radiated power into a beam while
minimizing emission in other directions
Classifications:
Linear
Logarithmic
Parasitic
Broadband antenna
June 2001
RT-RFA 35
Unidirectional Antennas
Traveling-wave Wire Antenna

Folded Dipole Antenna
Turnstile Antenna
Loop Antenna
Rhombic Antenna
Yagi-Uda Antenna
Log Periodic Antenna
Mobile Antenna
Sector Antenna
June 2001
RT-RFA 36
Traveling-wave Wire
Antenna
Dipole
antenna
Antenna
Reflected
wave
Incident
wave
Reflected
wave
Resonant wave of
wavelength antenna
June 2001
Incident
wave
Traveling wave for

non-simple antenna
RT-RFA 37
Folded Dipole Antenna
Beam
Folded Dipole
Driven element
length =
Reflector
length 2 + 5%
Folded dipole antenna
June 2001
Radiation pattern
RT-RFA 38
Turnstile Antenna
Turnstile antenna
June 2001
Radiation pattern
RT-RFA 39
Loop Antenna
Loop antenna
Radiation pattern in
horizontal plane
June 2001
RT-RFA 40
Rhombic Antenna
L
800
June 2001
Preferred
direction of
radiation
RT-RFA 41
Rhombic Antenna
Radiation Pattern
June 2001
RT-RFA 42
Yagi-Uda Antenna
Yagi-Uda
Antenna
Director
Driven element
Reflector
June 2001
RT-RFA 43
Yagi-Uda Antenna
Beam
Director
length = 2 - 5%
Driven element
length = /2
Reflector
length2 + 5%
June 2001
RT-RFA 44
Log Periodic Antenna

All elements driven by transmitter
All elements driven but not active at same frequency
Has broad frequency response
Operates on more than one frequency
June 2001
RT-RFA 45
Mobile Antennas:
Collinear Gain Antenna
Low-gain antenna

Two types
- Through-the-glass
- Standard mount
Have upper and lower portion
separated by phase matching coil
June 2001
RT-RFA 46
Sector Antennas
6-sector cell
3-sector cell
June 2001
60
60
120
RT-RFA 47
Sector Antennas
Realistic antenna coverage

in 6-sector cell
June 2001
Antenna overlap
in 6-sector cell
RT-RFA 48
Antenna Configuration
Requirements
June 2001
RT-RFA 49
Antenna Configuration
Requirements
Antenna separation
Diversity
Isolation
Interference
Radiation patterns not distorted by obstacles or
reflections
June 2001
RT-RFA 50
Space Diversity
June 2001
RT-RFA 51
Polarization Diversity
June 2001
RT-RFA 52
Isolation
Needed to avoid distortion due to intermodulation
Need to fulfill these isolation values
TX RX isolation > 30 dB
TX TX isolation > 30 dB
Horizontal physical separation requirements

30 dB isolation: 11.5
800 MHz: 10 feet
1900 MHz: 6 feet
Vertical separation requirement for antenna is 0.2 meter
June 2001
RT-RFA 53
Antenna Downtilt
Beam of verticallymounted antenna
Beam of vertically-mountedantenna with tilted beam
June 2001
RT-RFA 54
Antenna Height
Reducing antenna height by 50% will reduce average
received signal by 6 dB
Repositioning transmit and/or receive antenna can help
maintain system balance
June 2001
RT-RFA 55
Signal Coverage
Problems
June 2001
RT-RFA 56
Signal Coverage
Problems
Design problems
Maintenance problems
System maturation
Site location and geometry
Shadows in pattern
Nulls in pattern
Intermodulation, co-channel, and adjacent channel
interference problems
June 2001
RT-RFA 57
Resolving Signal
Coverage Problems
Reduce antenna height
Downtilt the antenna
Use higher or lower gain antenna
Use antenna with wider or narrower horizontal or
vertical beam width
June 2001
RT-RFA 58
Return Loss of an
Antenna
Power difference between incident and reflected wave
in transmission line feeding the antenna
3 dB return loss means reflected power is half of
incident power
June 2001
RT-RFA 59
Interference
Multipath condition
June 2001
RT-RFA 60
Interference
+
Signal Amplitude
Non-fade period
time
Fading
-
Rayleigh fading
June 2001
RT-RFA 61
Co-Channel Interference
June 2001
RT-RFA 62
Advanced System
Antennas
June 2001
RT-RFA 63
Advanced Antenna
Systems
Are expensive
Increase cell coverage and capacity without building
additional sites
Examples
Multi-beam antenna systems
Smart antenna systems
June 2001
RT-RFA 64
Multi-Beam Antennas
Standard cell divided into 18 microsectors
June 2001
RT-RFA 65
Smart Antenna Systems
Fixed Beam Strategy
June 2001
Adaptive Beam Strategy
RT-RFA 66

Time division duplex (TDD) communication systems
transmit and receive on same frequency
Frequency division duplex (FDD) transmit and receive
on separate frequencies
Capacity for frequency reuse is greater than a standard
cell system
Power needed for radio beam is less than for fixed
beam strategy
Use code division multiple access method to balance
the traffic load
June 2001
RT-RFA 67
Traffic Load Balancing

Cell with unbalanced load
Cell with balanced load
June 2001
RT-RFA 68
Handling Capacity of
Conventional
sectorization area
Switched beam area
Adaptive area
June 2001
RT-RFA 69
Switched Beam versus

Adaptive Array Systems
Factors to consider
Interference suppression
Range and coverage
Spatial division multiple access (SDMA)
Enables wireless system to efficiently use available frequencies
where customers are located
Creates a sector for each receiver while maximizing signal
strength at receiver and minimizing interference
Uses multiple antennas to combine signals in space at location of
receiver
June 2001
RT-RFA 70
Antenna Covers and

Support Structures
June 2001
RT-RFA 71
Antenna Covers and

Support Structures
Antenna covers
Protect antenna element from weather
Make antenna more aesthetically pleasing
Types of support structures
Self-supporting towers
Guyed towers
Monopole
Camouflaged towers
Existing structures
June 2001
RT-RFA 72
Antenna Support
Structures
Self-supporting towers
Large 3-D framework of galvanized girders
Antenna may be placed at top or any level of tower based on
transmission requirements
Guyed towers
Made of crisscrossing steel girders
Held in place by guy wires that form a 15 degree vertical angle
Antenna may be placed at top or any level of tower based on
transmission requirements
June 2001
RT-RFA 73
Antenna Support
Structures
Requires less land area

and is more aesthetically
pleasing than other structures
Antenna placement depends

on transmission requirements
Monopole with 3-sector head
June 2001
RT-RFA 74
Antenna Support
Structures
Camouflaged towers
Existing support structure
Buildings
Water towers
Electric towers
Light pole
Highway signs
FAA identifies special lighting and/or safety requirement

FCC specifies power allowed based on various factors
Terrain
Frequencies used
Other radio uses in the area
June 2001
RT-RFA 75
Industry Contributors
The following companies provided materials and
resource support for this module:
AT&T Wireless (http://www.attwireless.com)
Ericsson (http://www.ericsson.com)
LCC International, Inc. (http://www.lcc.com)
Motorola (http://www.motorola.com)
Nortel Networks (http://www.nortel.com)
Northeast Center for Telecommunications
Technologies(http://nctt.org/index2.htm)
RF Globalnet (http://www.rfglobalnet.com)
June 2001
RT-RFA 76
Industry Contributors,
cont.
The following companies provided materials and

resource support for this module:
Space 2000 (http://www.cdmaonline.com)
Telcordia Technologies, Inc (http://www.telcordia.com)
Verizon (http://www.verizon.com)
June 2001
RT-RFA 77
Individual Contributors
The following individuals and their organization or
institution provided materials, resources, and development
input for this module:
Dr. Chaouki Abdallah
University of New Mexico
http://www.unm.edu
Dr. Jamil Ahmed

British Columbia Institute of Technology
http://www.bcit.ca
Dr. John Baldwin

South Central Technical College
http://Jbaldwin@means.net
June 2001
RT-RFA 78
Individual Contributors,
cont.
Dr. Derrek Dunn
North Carolina A&T State University
http://www.ncat.edu
Mr. Robert Elms

ACRE Engineering Services
http://Rielms@myexcel.com
Mr. Stuart D. MacPherson

Durban Institute of Technology
Dr. James Masi

Springfield Technical Community College
http://www.stcc.mass.edu/nsindex.asp
June 2001
RT-RFA 79
Individual Contributors,
cont.
Ms. Annette Muga
Ericsson
http://www.ericsson.com
Dr. Dave Voltmer

Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
http://www.rose-hulman.edu
June 2001
RT-RFA 80

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Trademarked names appear throughout this module. All trademarked names

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Explain why and how to measure impedance

Perform a return loss measurement on an antenna

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Antennas as Part of All

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Current generates electromagnetic field around

Copyright 2001 Global

Cellular band antenna

Copyright 2001 Global

Copyright 2001 Global

Copyright 2001 Global Wireless Education Consortium

Copyright 2001 Global

As a percent, B(p), of center frequency, f(ctr)

Copyright 2001 Global

Antenna gain, Gant, is a function of wavelength

Ae = Effective antenna area

Copyright 2001 Global

Antenna Beam Width

Beam width is width of radiated pattern where signal

For unidirectional antennas, resulting major lobe of

Copyright 2001 Global

Referred to as f-b ratio or f/b ratio

Copyright 2001 Global

Same frequencies used

Copyright 2001 Global

Copyright 2001 Global Wireless Education Consortium

Completely non-directional antenna

Exists only as a mathematical concept

Used as a reference to specify gain of a practical

Copyright 2001 Global

Copyright 2001 Global

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Theoretical halfwave dipole antenna

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Antenna of receiver should be oriented in same

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Voltage Standing Wave

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Receiving antenna receives signals equally well from all

Limited bandwidth efficiency

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Radiating Coaxial Cable

Radiating Coaxial Cable Antenna

Radiating Cable Radiation Pattern

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Series of antennas around a given building

Series of antennas located on the side of a building

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Copyright 2001 Global

Copyright 2001 Global