Discrimination,

Discrimination,
Prejudice
Prejudice and
and
Stereotype
Stereotype
Presented By: Nor Anisa Bt. Musa
 Discrimination
• Direct discrimination involves treating
someone less favorably because of their
possession of an attribute (e.g., sex, age,
race, religion, family status, national origin,
military status, sexual orientation,
disability, body size/shape), compared with
someone without that attribute in the
same circumstances.
 Discrimination
• Discrimination is a behavior (an
action), with reference to unequal
treatment of people because they
are members of a particular group.
• Farley also classified discrimination
into three categories.
 Discrimination
• Discrimination is the behavioural component
or differential actions taken towards others
• Prejudice is a negative attitude and
behaviour, also unjustified behaviour
• Attitudes and behaviour reflects our inner
convictions
• Racism and sexism are practices that
discriminate.
 Personal / Individual
Discrimination
• Personal / Individual Discrimination
is directed toward a specific
individual and refers to any act that
leads to unequal treatment because
of the individual's real or perceived
group membership.
 Legal Discrimination
• Legal Discrimination refers to "unequal
treatment, on the grounds of group
membership, that is upheld by law." Apartheid
is an example of legal discrimination.
• Laws were passed not only to restrict the
movement of blacks into these areas, but also to
prohibit their movement from one district to
another without a signed pass. Blacks were not
allowed onto the streets of towns in the Cape
Colony and Natal after dark and had to carry
their passes at all times.
 Institutional
Discrimination
• Institutional Discrimination refers
to unequal treatment that is
entrenched in basic social institutions
resulting in advantaging one group
over another. The Indian caste
system is a historical example of
institutional discrimination.
 Subtle discrimination
• Subtle discrimination involves setting a condition
or requirement which a smaller proportion of
those with the attribute are able to comply
with, without reasonable justification. The U.S.
case of Griggs v. Duke Power Company provides an
example of indirect discrimination, where an
aptitude test used in job applications was found
"to disqualify Negroes at a substantially higher
rate than white applicants"
 Racial discrimination
• Racial discrimination differentiates
between individuals on the basis of
real and perceived racial
differences, and has been official
government policy in several
countries, such as South Africa in
the apartheid era, and the USA.
Racial discrimination

An African-American
child at a segregated
drinking fountain on a
courthouse lawn,
North Carolina, 1938.
 Racial discrimination
• In the United States, racial profiling of
minorities by law enforcement officials has
been called racial discrimination. As early as
1865, the Civil Rights Act provided a remedy
for intentional race discrimination in
employment by private employers and state
and local public employers.
 Gingerism
• Gingerism is a form of
discrimination which is sometimes
considered to be racism.
 Age discrimination

• Age discrimination is or group on the

grounds of age. Although theoretically the
word can refer to the discrimination against
any age group, age discrimination usually
comes in one of three forms: discrimination
against youth (also called adultism),
discrimination against those 40 years old or
older, and discrimination against elderly
people.
 Age discrimination
• Some people consider that teenagers and
youth (around 15-25 years old) are victims
of adultism, age discrimination framed as
a paternalistic form of protection. In
seeking social justice, they feel that it is
necessary to remove the use of a false
moral agenda in order to achieve agency
and empowerment
 Sexual discrimination
• Sexual discrimination can arise in
different contexts. For instance an
employee may be discriminated against by
being asked discriminatory questions
during a job interview, or because an
employer did not hire, promote or
wrongfully terminated an employee based
on his or her gender, or employers pay
unequally based on gender.
• In an educational setting there could be
claims that a student was excluded from
an educational institution, program,
opportunity, loan, student group, or
scholarship due to his or her gender. In
the housing setting there could be claims
that a person was refused negotiations on
seeking a house, contracting/leasing a
house or getting a loan based on his or her
gender. Another setting where there have
been claims of gender discrimination is
banking; for example if one is refused
credit or is offered unequal loan terms
based on one’s gender.
 Transgender
• Transgender individuals, both male to
female and female to male, often
experience problems which often
lead to dismissals,
underachievement, difficulty in
finding a job, social isolation, and,
occasionally, violent attacks against
them.
 Reverse discrimination
• Reverse discrimination is a common term used to
describe policies or acts that discriminate in
favor of a group historically discriminated
against (e.g. women, blacks, Hispanics, the
disabled, people over 40 years of age, etc).
• Most academic and expert opponents of
preferential policies that favor historically-
discriminated groups, such as Carl Cohen, avoid
the term "reverse discrimination" on the grounds
that "discrimination is discrimination" and that
the label "reverse" is a misnomer.
Disability discrimination
• Disabled people may also face
discrimination by employers. They may find
problems with securing employment as
their handicap can be seen as a risk to the
company, and once in employment they may
find they are overlooked for promotion
opportunities. Similarly, if an employee
becomes disabled while employed they may
also find themselves being managed out
the company by HR departments.
Disability discrimination
• Almost every person with a syndrome
is discriminated. They may not be
able to join organizations, and they
may even be neglected by schools and
other public utilities.
 Prejudice
• The word prejudice refers to prejudgment:
making a decision about before becoming aware of
the relevant facts of a case or event.
• In the expression 'racial prejudice‘, Initially this
is referred to making a judgment about a person
based on their race, religion, class, etc.,
before receiving information relevant to the
particular issue on which a judgment was being
made; it came, however, to be widely used to
refer to any hostile attitude towards people
based on their race or even by just judging
someone without even knowing them.
 Prejudice
• Everyone comes face to face with prejudice at some
time or another.
• Prejudice is when we recognize that we feel and act
less positively towards others.
• The roots of prejudice can be found in the cognitive
and emotional processes.
• Prejudice may be perceived as acceptable and
justified
• All inequality and differential treatment is not
perceived and responded to in the same way.
 Threats to self-esteem
• Prejudice persist because disparaging
others can protect our self-esteem.
• Threats to our group’s interest can
motivate prejudice and competition can
escalate conflicts
• Holding prejudiced views of an out-group
allows members to bolster their own group’s
image.
 Cognitive Prejudice
Bob Farley classified prejudice into three
categories.
• Cognitive Prejudice refers to what people
believe is true. An example of cognitive
prejudice might be found, for example,
adherence to a particular metaphysical or
methodological philosophy to the exclusion of
other philosophies that may offer a more
complete theoretical explanation.
 Affective Prejudice
• Affective Prejudice refers to what
people like and dislike . An example
of affective prejudice might be
found, for example, in attitudes
toward members of particular classes
such as race, ethnicity, national
origin, or creed.
 Conative Prejudice
• Conative Prejudice refers to how people are
inclined to behave.
• Conative prejudice is regarded as an attitude
because people don't act on their feelings. An
example of conative prejudice might be found in
expressions of what should be done if the
opportunity presented itself.
• These three types of prejudice are correlated, but
all need not be present in a particular individual.
Someone might believe a particular group possesses
low levels of intelligence, but harbor no ill feelings
toward that group. A group might be disliked
because of intense competition for jobs, but still
recognize no differences between groups.
 Arousal approach
• Following the psychodynamic perspective,
some traditional psychologists described
prejudice a result of frustration.
• Psychodynamics theory assumed that human
mind contains psychic energy, which serve as
a tool for psychological activities and can only
be discharged through cathartic – the
completion of the activities – to maintain
equilibrium; viewing art or listening to music
may be cathartic experiences. (Dollard,
Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939).
 Arousal approach
• Impediment of dissipation results in frustration,
which can only be corrected through aggression.
Prejudice is an occasion in which a group of
people is frustrated by a stronger group which
is too powerful or remote to be aggressed
against, thus they displaced the aggressive
behavior onto weaker groups, which serve as a
scapegoat. For example, when a boy is scolded by
his parent, he may choose to displace the
frustration to his weaker sister since he is unable
to fight back to his parent.
 Personality approach
• Another classical explanation on prejudice
concerns the personalities which create
tendency on prejudice against minorities.
Historically, psychologists suggested
various personalities contributing to
discrimination, including authoritarianism,
dogmatism, closed-mindedness, dominant
orientation, etc
 Intergroup approach
• Some social psychologists explain
prejudice as the effect of group
interaction.
• According to social identity theory, when
we are identified with a group, we show
some general characteristics including
ethnocentrism, in group favoritism, inter
group differentiation and so on, which
contribute to prejudice.
 Learning approach
• Modeling, which is also known as learning by
vicarious experience in social learning theory
(Bandura, 1973), refers to learning a behaviour
through observing another individual engaging in
that behavior. Since observation is already
enough for learning the behaviour, the individual
does not need to participate in the behaviour.
According this theory, people can acquire
prejudiced thinking by merely observing others'
discriminative behaviour.
 Learning approach
• For example, children may acquire a
gender stereotype by observing their
parents treating males and females
differently. This effect would be
especially amplified when the model
is rewarded for the behaviour.
 Learning approach
• People can also learn to prejudice through
association learning including classical and
operant conditioning. In classical conditioning, a
subject is instructed with flawed reasoning when
an attribute is presented (e.g. greedy) with a
specific group (e.g. merchants) repeatedly. The
subject then links the attribute to the group,
resulting in prejudice. Operant conditioning
refers to alteration of behaviour by regulating
the consequences following it.
 Learning approach
• Reinforcement in is a kind of consequence or a
procedure that specifically leads to an increase in
frequency of the behaviour immediately preceding it.
If an individual gains acceptance to his/her reference
group (Kelley, 1952) by discriminating towards other
groups or individuals, he/she is then be motivated to
continue this discrimination due to the
reinforcement following it.
• Although, empirical results often showed significant
correlation between parents’ and child’s attitude,
the correlations were typically low (Connel, 1972),
especially after the child grew up. This suggests that
learning theory can only explain part of the reason
behind prejudice.
 Sociology
• Sociologists termed prejudice an adaptive
behavior. Biased views might be thought
needed at times for survival. There is not
always enough time to form a legitimate
view about a potential foe before adopting
a defensive stance that could save lives.
Prejudice is non-adaptive when it
interferes with survival or well-being.
 Stereotype
• A stereotype is a preconceived idea that
attributes certain characteristics (in general)
to all the members of class or set.
• The term is often used with a negative
connotation when referring to an oversimplified,
exaggerated, or demeaning assumption that a
particular individual possesses the characteristics
associated with the class due to his or her
membership in it.
• Stereotypes can be used to deny individuals
respect or legitimacy based on their membership
in that group.
Stereotyping: beliefs about
social groups
• Stereotyping is the belief about
social groups in terms of the traits
or characteristics that they are
deemed to share
• Stereotypes are cognitive
frameworks that influence the
processes of social information
 Stereotypes
• Stereotypes are the cognitive component
attitudes towards a social group.
• To stereotypes is to generalize.
• It is a belief about what a particular group is
like
• It is a belief about the personal attributes of
a group of people.
• It is sometimes over generalized, inaccurate
and resistant to new information but can be
more or less true.
 Stereotype
• Stereotypes often form the basis of prejudice and
are usually employed to explain real or imaginary
differences due to race, gender, religion, ethnicity,
socio-economic class, disability, occupation, etc.
• A stereotype can be a conventional and oversimplified
conception, opinion, or image based on the belief
that there are attitudes, appearances, or behaviors
shared by all members of a group.
• Stereotypes are forms of social consensus rather
than individual judgments. Stereotypes are
sometimes formed by a previous illusory correlation, a
false association between two variables that are
loosely correlated if correlated at all.
• Stereotypes may be occasionally positive.
 Gender Stereotypes
• Gender stereotypes concern the traits possessed by
females and males that distinguish the two genders.
• Women are perceived as high on warmth but low on
competence
• Woman are low in status
• Men are perceived as decisive, assertive and
accomplished but aggressive, insensitive and
arrogant
• Men are high status
• Women are seen as less appropriate for high status
positions
• Women are more suitable for support roles.
 Sociology
• Sociologists believe that mental categorizing is
necessary and inescapable.
• One perspective on how to understand
stereotyping process is through the categories
or ingroups and outgroups.
• Ingroups are viewed as normal and superior, and
are generally the group that one associates with
or aspires to join.
• An outgroup is simply all the other groups. They
are seen as lesser or inferior than the ingroups.
 Sociology
• A second perspective is that of automatic and
implicit or subconscious and conscious.
• Automatic or subconscious stereotyping is that
which everyone does without noticing.
• Automatic stereotyping is quickly preceded by
an implicit or conscious check which permits
time for any needed corrections.
• Automatic stereotyping is affected by implicit
stereotyping because frequent conscious
thoughts will quickly develop into subconscious
stereotypes.
 Sociology
• A third method to categorizing stereotypes is general
types and sub-types. Stereotypes consist of hierarchical
systems consisting of broad and specific groups being the
general types and sub-types respectively.
• A general type could be defined as a broad stereotype
typically known among many people and usually widely
accepted,
• whereas the sub-types would be one of the several groups
making up the general group. These would be more specific,
and opinions of these groups would vary according to
differing perspectives.
• One reason people stereotype is that it is too
difficult to take in all of the complexities of other
people. Even though stereotyping is inaccurate, it is
efficient.
• Categorization is an essential human capability
because it enables us to simplify, predict, and
organize our world.
• Once one has sorted and organized everyone into tidy
categories, there is every incentive to avoid
processing new or unexpected information about each
individual.
• Assigning general group characteristics to members
of that group saves time and satisfies the need to
predict the social world.
• People also tend to stereotype because of another
the need to feel good about oneself.
• Stereotypes protect one from anxiety and
enhance self-esteem.
• By designating one’s own group as the standard or
normal group and assigning others to groups
considered inferior or abnormal, it provides one
with a sense of worth.
• Childhood influences are some of the most
complex and influential factors in
developing stereotypes. Though they can
be absorbed at any age, stereotypes are
usually acquired in early childhood under
the influence of parents, teachers,
peers, and the media.
• Once a stereotype is learned, it often
becomes self-perpetuating.
 Stereotypes can have a negative
and positive impact on individuals.
• For example, a study which found that bogus
feedback to college students dramatically affected
their IQ test performance, and another in which
students were either praised as very smart,
congratulated on their hard work, or told that they
scored high. The group praised as smart performed
significantly worse than the others. They believe
that there is an 'innate ability bias'. These effects
are not just limited to minority groups.
Mathematically competent white males, mostly math
and engineering students, were asked to take a
difficult math test. One group was told that this was
being done to determine why Asians were scoring
better. This group performed significantly worse
than the other group.
Possible prejudicial effects
of stereotypes are:
Justification of ill-founded prejudices or
ignorance
• Unwillingness to rethink one's attitudes and
behavior towards stereotyped group
• Preventing some people of stereotyped groups
from entering or succeeding in activities or
field
 The effects of
stereotyping:
• The effects of stereotyping can fluctuate, but for the
most part they are negative, and not always apparent
until long periods of time have passed. Over time, some
victims of negative stereotypes display self-fulfilling
prophecy behavior, in which they assume that the
stereotype represents norms to emulate.
• Negative effects may include forming inaccurate opinions
of people, scapegoating, erroneously judgmentalism,
preventing emotional identification, distress, and
impaired performance.
• Stereotyping painfully reminds those being judged of how
society views them.
Sometimes "stereotype" and "prejudice" are
confused.
• Stereotypes are standardized and simplified
conceptions of groups, based on some prior
assumptions.
• Stereotypes are created based on some idea of
abstract familiarity.
• Prejudices are more specific - they are
predispositions to differential behavior
patterns.
 Example:
• Japanese people are often represented as
extremely polite, intelligent, and obedient but
disliking of foreigners. They bow extensively and
are very good business people. Their stop words
are: "honourable", "regrettable" and "please“.
Other Japanese stereotypes are the geisha, the
sumo wrestler, the samurai, the martial arts
expert.
• Chinese people have often been portrayed in the
media as rice eating, grinning people who have long
queues, wear "douli" on their heads and walk
around with their hands hidden in long robes.
 Example:
• Indians and other South Asians are often
depicted as shopkeepers, taxi drivers,
supermarket store clerks, gurus, snake charmers
etc. They are shown riding on elephants,
worshiping cows, watching Bollywood movies, and
eating hot spices and curry.
• Arabs. Their noses, mustaches and beards are
often exaggerated in caricature. Popular images
are the Muslim flying on a carpet, climbing on an
erect rope, riding a camel, drawing out daggers or
sabres, ululating, or sitting in a tent smoking a
water pipe. Arabic people are often depicted as
rich oil sheiks with sunglasses and a turban.
 Example:
• The English people are stereotyped as
inordinately proper, imperialistic, phlegmatic,
polite and sophisticated, yet obsessed with class
and social status and curiously convinced of their
own superiority.
• Australian stereotypical are often represented as
being unsophisticated and obsessed with beer and
surfing, boomerangs and kangaroos.
• Since World War I and World War II Germans
are often depicted as evil, militaristic, racist,
antisemitic and war mongering. They are often
referred to as Nazis or obedient soldiers or
officers.
The nature and origins of streotyping,
prejudice and discrimination
• Prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination often
overlap.
• Prejudice is the feelings we have about particular
groups.
• Prejudice is a negative prejudgment of a group
and its individual members.
• Prejudice biases us against others based on the
person’s group.
• Prejudice is a combination of feelings, inclinations
to act and beliefs.
• Prejudice is complex and include a component of
patronizing affection.