Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Systems
By: Najeeb Haider Zaidi
Navigation
Navigation is the process of directing the
movements of a vehicle successfully from
one point to another. The vehicle may be
spacecraft, aircraft, ship, submarine or a
car.
Navigational Techniques
Navigational Techniques
Dead Reckoning
Piloting
Celestial Navigation
Electronic Navigation
Position
Direction
Speed
Distance
The Earth
Poles
North and South
East and West
Great Circle
Small Circle
Equator
Meridians
Positioning on Earth
Latitude
Longitude
Prime Meridian
Equator
Positioning on Earth
F
C
C
E
Figure 1
Figure 2
Direction
Bearing
True Bearing
True Course
The Compass
The navigational Compass is an
instrument that gives the necessary datum
line from which the course and bearing
can be measured.
There are three kinds of Compass.
Magnetic Compass
Gyro Compass
Gyro-Magnetic Compass
Magnetic Compass
Earth behaves like a
magnet with its magnetic
south towards the North
pole and magnetic north
towards the south pole.
So if a magnet is
suspended or pivoted, its
north would be attracted
towards the magnetic
south of the earth or
towards the north pole.
And vice versa.
Gyro Compass
The spinning free
wheel defends the
change in the
direction of its
spinning axis, this
property of the wheel
is used to point the
true north.
Gyro-Magnetic Compass
It uses the magnetic compass to seek the
north and then uses gyro to stabilize it.
When correct variations and deviations
are set on compass console, it transmits
the true north.
Direction Finding
There are two methods of Determining the
bearing line from a shore based or ship
based transmitter.
Measuring the direction of propagation of the
received waves, which have followed the
great circle between the transmitter and
receiver.
Listening with a normal receiver to a
transmitter at fixed position radiating different
signals in different directions.
Working Principle 1
If a changing number of magnetic lines of
forces pass through the surface enclosed by
the windings of a coil, voltage is induced in the
windings.
The alternating current in a transmitting aerial
also sets up lines of magnetic force, which are
propagated in the speed of light.
Working Principle 2
In order to use this
rediation to determine the
radio bearings from a
transmitter, a loop aerial
is used instead of coil
The diameter of the loop
is about 1 meter, there
are number of windings
inside the circular tube,
so this aerial can be
considered as a coil.
Working Principle 3
Working Principle 3
Diagram below presents the planar view of the
antenna. Spinning about the axis O, the circle
over here shows the rotation path of the
antenna.
B
D
OG
Direction Finding
In order to find out the
direction of the
transmitter, the aerial is
rotated and two reading
are taken,
At maximum signal
strength the aerial is
parallel with the
transmitter and at zero
signal strength the aerial
is perpendicular to the
transmitter.
Principal Errors
Errors Caused by surroundings:
Transmitters induce the alternating voltage not only in
the aerial but in its surroundings as well, in the hull,
the mast of the ship etc.
In all these conductors small alternating current will
be induced, which in turn give rise to the radio waves.
The phenomenon is known as reflection.
These waves arrives at the DF aerial from different
directions with different strengths and delays
generating noise.
This results in continuous generation of tone even
when the aerial is perpendicular to the transmitter.
Principal Errors
Night Effect
It is caused by the deviation of the magnetic lines of
force in the ionosphere from the horizontal, although
they remain perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
If the observer is unaware of this he will turn the
search coil to a position in which reception is zero and
will coincide that the transmitter is located deviated to
its true direction.
Bearings are unreliable during the night effect, which
is predominant within one hour of sunrise and sunset.
Radars
Brief Historical Survey
Primary Radar
Radar Sends a signal, if it strikes a
suitable target, it is reflected back to the
receiver. The receiver portion of the signal,
or echo, will be very small compared with
the transmitted signal.
Measurement of the time taken for the
transmission Radio wave to reach the
contact and reflected back enables the
range if contact to be measured.
Primary Radar
Two possible methods are used.
Pulsed Radar: A short pulse is transmitted and the
radar waits for a possible echo to be returned before
transmitting the next pulse.
Used in Surveillance Radars.
Secondary Radar
In Secondary radar, the signal transmitted is
used to trigger a transmission from the contact.
Thus the received signal is not an echo but a
transmitted signal from the contact. Like;
An Airport radar can trigger responses from aircraft
waiting to land.
Aircraft transmission can trigger responses from fixed
transmissions whose positions are accurately known,
in order to aid the aircraft for its position
determination.
An Aircraft can be challenged by a warships
secondary radar at a considerable range. A friendly
aircraft should provide a known response. IFF
Transmitter
Target
Receiver
Target Detection
Echo Signal
Range to Target
Radar Range
A pulse of microwave energy is transmitted and
the range R of the target can be determined by
measuring the out-and-back time, TR
cTR
R
2
R (nmi ) 0.081TR ( s )
2
2 fp
Range Resolution
The range resolution of a radar is specified in
terms of minimum distance between targets
that allows the targets to be seen as
independent objects. It can be determined by
the Pulse Duration(). By using the following
formula;
RRe s
PT G
PR
3 4
64 R
Class Exercise
Pulse Period=100sec
Pulse Duration=0.8sec
Average Pulse Power=300W
Common transmit/receive antenna with gain of 18dB
Determine
1.
2.
3.
4.
Solution
Maximum Unambiguous Range:
cTP 3 108 100
Run
15 Km
2
2
Range Resolution:
RRe s
c 3 108 0.8
120meters
2
2
4
.
3
10
W 153.7 dBW
3 4
3
4
64 R
64 (3.14) (15 K )
Receiver Sensitivity:
Receiver Sensitivity= PR-FM=-153.7dB-10=-163.7dBW
Antenna
Duplexer
Power
Amplifier
Waveform
Generator
IF
Matched
amplifier Filter
LNA
Demodulator
Video
amplifier
Threshold
Decision
Output
Local
Osc.
Applications of Radar
Aircraft Navigation
Weather avoidance radar used on aircraft
to outline regions of precipitation to the
pilot is a classical form of radar.
Radar is also used for terrain avoidance
and terrain following.
The FM/CW or pulse radars are used as
radio altimeter and Doppler navigators.
Ship Safety
Radars are used as warning systems of
potential collision with other ships.
For the detection of navigation buoys,
especially in poor visibility
High resolution radars are used for the
surveillance of harbors.
Automatic Detection and tracking
equipments employ radars systems as
well mostly for collision avoidance.
Space
Space vehicles use radars as an important
part of their design.
Ground based tracking and detection of
Satellites.
Satellite borne radars are used for remote
sensing.
Remote Sensing
Radars has been used as remote sensors
of weather.
Geographical explorations.
Remote sensing for the Measurement and
mapping of sea condition, water
resources, agriculture, forestry conditions,
geological formations and environmental
pollution.
Law Enforcement
Speed measurements of cars.
Intruder detection.
UWB radars are used to see through the
walls.
Military
Surveillance, Navigation, Control and
guidance of weapons.
Air defense.
The largest use of radar is in this sector.