HISTORY OF

CHEMISTRY AND
METALLURGY
IN INDIA

OUTLINE
Classification of development of
science as an art
Introduction to
Alchemy
Indian Alchemy & its characteristics
Classification of Rasasastra
Plants in Indian Alchemy
The Laboratory-Rasasala
The Apparatus- Yantras
Medicinal- Chemistry

Metal working
Paper Manufacturing
Cosmetics &
Perfumery
References

(from
(from pre-historic
pre-historic times
times -1500BC)
-1500BC)

Pre-Vedic
Pre-Vedic Period
Period

Pottery

Metals and Metalworking

Other Chemical
practices

(1500BC-600BC)
(1500BC-600BC)

The Vedic Age

Pottery

Metals- Iron

Glass

Ceramics

The post-vedic
period & the
classical age
(600BC-740AD)

Pigments

Metal
working
Literary
Evidences

Copper
Metallurgy
Iron
Metallurgy

ery from various civilizations and periods of India

Bramhgiri & Chandraval

Takshashila
Pottery

Polikrom Nal Valley Potte

Arekmedu Pottery

Harra
pa
Potter
y

Introduction to
Alchemy

Fire

Hot

Dry

Air

Earth

Wet

Cold

Water
The four Elements of the Greek thinker, Enpedocles

The word Alchemy is Arabic (al-chemy) and it seems to have been

derived from the Egyptian khem-it (the black) or the Greek word chyma
(black molten metal).
Alchemy is the forerunner of the Modern chemistry.
Modern chemistry is about 200 years old and has developed as a result
of experimentation,
Observation and inference whereas Alchemy, for over 2000 years
revolved around only 2 objectives ever in sight and never reached, viz.
(i) The transmutation process for converting base metals ( like lead, tin,
mercury or copper) into the noble metals (gold or silver);
(ii) Preparation of the Elixir of Life for attaining immortality.
To achieve these objectives the alchemists developed complicated
processes and secret practices involving metals, minerals and herbs, but
The Chinese alchemy seems to be very ancient, probably belonging to
their endeavours appeared to be not only mysterious but even
the early centuries before the Christian era.
superstitious.
The Chinese had reverence for Cinnabar (Mercuric sulphide) which
occurs naturally in China. They considered it as the energetic essence
and bestower of long life as the two components of cinnabar-mercury
and sulphur-were supposed to be the yin (female) and yang (male)
principles respectively. This concept was in perfect accord with the
Chinese religio-philosophic system known as Taoism.

INDIAN ALCHEMY & ITS CHARACTERISTICS

The Sanskrit equivalent of the

term alchemy in general is
Rasavidya and that of the
alchemist is Rasavadin. The
word rasa as used in the
alchemical literature means
Mercury.
Mercury is central to the whole
Indian alchemical thought and
it is also referred to as parada,
which literally means that it
enables human beings to cross
the ocean of life.
All the well-known texts are
unfolded in the form of a
dialogue between the male God
Shiva and Sakti

Male-female symbolism
Mercurythe
creative
energy of Lord Shiva
Sulphur-Shivas feminine
energetic
part,
the
Goddess Sakti
Literature on Alchemy in IndiaRasasastra
Rasahradya by Govind Bhagavat
Rasaratnakara by Siddha
Nagarjuna
Rasendrachudamani by Somdeva
Rasaprakasasudhakara by
Yasodhara
Rasarajalaksmi by Ramesvara
Bhatta

POWERS OF MERCURY

Mercury-King of rasashas
different
namesparada, rasendra, suta,
maharasa,
etc.,
most
significantly,
Sivaja,
Sivavirya and Harabija.
The most potent agent for
bestowing happiness and
worldly
prosperity
on
man-> state of eternal
bliss.
Rasaratnasamuccaya
asserts that he who
denies
mercury,
the
creative principle of Siva,

PROCESSING OF MERCURY

Rasavidya
states
that
Mercury
should
be
subjected to a series of
methodical
processes(typically 18 in
number)samskara-to
make it fit for internal
use.
The
Rasasastra
texts
describe these processes
in the context of the
preparation of various
mineral
or
metallic
medicines used for curing
a number of diseases.

CLASSIFICATION

Mahar
asa

Uparas
a

Abhrak
(Mica)

Gandhak
(Sulphur)
Gairika
(Red
Ochre)
Kasisa

Vaikranta
(Tourmali
Maksika
ne)
(Copper
Pyrites)

Vimala
(Iron
Pyrites)

Asyaka
(Copper
sulphate)

Capala
Silajatu
(Bitumen)

Rasaka

(Iron
Sulphate)
Tuvari
(Alum)
Talaka
(Orpimen
t)
Manahsil
a
(Realgar)
Anjana
(Collyriu
Kankusth
m)
a
(Tinstone
)

Rasasastra

Dhatu
Svarna
(Gold)
Rajata or
Tara
(Silver)

Tamra
(Copper
)
Loha
(Iron)
Naga
(Lead)
Vanga
(Tin)
Yasada
(Zinc)

Ratna
Vaikran
ta
Suryakan
ta
Chandrak
anta

Hiraka
(Daimond)
Mautika
(Pearl)
Garudodgara
(Emerald)
Rajavarta (Lapis
Lazuli)
Marakata
(Topaz)
Nila
(Sapphire)
Padmaraga
(Ruby)

Visa
A
number
of plant
product
s and
mineral
s

PLANTS IN INDIAN
ALCHEMY

Divyaushadhi- Divine medicinal plants- roots, leaves, seeds, oils

and exudates

Names of more than 200 plants are mentioned in different texts

on Rasasastra and the Indian Rasavadins believed that the
minerals and metals would not acquire the desirable iatrochemical properties unless they were treated or digested with
one medicinal plant or the other.
Scientific
Rasasast
a brief account
of some of the plants
is following: significance
Iatro-chemical
ra Name
Name
Agasti

Sesbania
grandiflora

Purification of manahsila, maksika and vajra

Amlaveta
sa

Rumex
vesicarius

To enable mercury acquire grasping

properties; purification and fixation of mercury

Ankola

Ialangium
lamarkii

Purification of mercury

Apamarg
a

Achyranthes
aspera

Calcination of gold; transmutation of mercury

into gold

Bhringa

Wedwlia
calendulacea

Purification of sulphur, realgar, sulphate of

iron and collyrium, killing of mercury and
iron

THE LABORATORIES
-RASASALA
According
to
the
Rasaratnasamuccaya,
the
following are the prerequisites
of a rasasala:
The laboratory should be
erected in a place rich in
medicinal herbs
It
should
be
spacious,
furnished with 4 doors in 4
directions and decorated with
the portraits of divine beings
The
phallus
of
mercury
(rasalinga)
in
the
east,
furnaces in the south-east,
instruments in the south-west,
washing operations in the
west, and drying operations in
Image Courtesy: Pride of India
the north-west

The rasasala should have several types of

apparatus such as
Conch-shell

Pair of Bellows

Sieves of

varying

Pestle and
Mortar

degrees of
fineness

Crucibles-musa yantra

Earthen material for crucibles

Courtesy: Google Imag

THE APPARATUS-YANTRAS
The kosthi yantram-two suitable vessels (one of
them being bigger)-both having rims on two
sides. Swooned mercury is to be placed in the
bigger vessel and heated from outside by the
application of cow dung cake fire.

Kosthi
yantra
m

In the dola yantram, the substance is kept in a

piece of cloth, tied and suspended by means of
a rod which is placed across the pot half-filled
with the desired liquid. The substance is kept
immersed in liquid and the liquid is then heated
from outside.

Sveda
ni
yantra
m

Dola yantram
The svedani yantram is used for steaming
purposes. The mouth of a pot containing water
is covered with a piece of cloth and the
substance to be steamed is placed on the cloth

The patana yantram-sublimation or distillation- Water

is taken in a well baked pot of suitable dimension to its
neck. Over this pot is kept inverted another big pot. The
junction of the pots is kept tight by the application of a
dough made of lime, raw sugar and buffalos milk. The
inside bottom of the upper vessel- smeared with the
substance-heated from outside by burning cow-dung cakes.
The vapours of the substance fall into the water of the
lower one, i.e., sublimation is directed downwards
(adhahpatana).
Urdhvapatana- When necessary
the substance is also heated in the
lower pot and the upper one is
kept cooled by applying wet rags.
The sublimate deposits in the
interior of the upper pot, i.e., the
sublimation is directed upwards.

Triyakpatana- A pot or vessel is provided

with a long tube fitted in an inclined position,
which is in communication with the inside of
another vessel. The latter serves as the
receiver. The substance kept in the former is
heated and the vapours condense in the
receiver which is kept cooled.

Baluka yantramsand bath for

heating substance
Dheki yantram

Dhupa
yantramfumigation of gold or
silver leaves with fumes
sulphur
or
arsenic
substances

Courtesy: Pride of India;

MEDICAL(IATRO)-CHEMISTRY
The Indian alchemical texts of even the eleventh or
twelfth century AD contains details of a number of
compositions to be used as medicines for curing
specific diseases.
Alchemy in India was concerned more with the lifeprolonging processes than with the conversion of the
base metals into noble ones.
According to Paracelsus, the human body is composed
of mineral substances and in diseased states could be
cured by the use of mineral medicines. This eventually
pointed the superiority of the mineral medicines over
the herbal ones. Whereas the alchemists of India
thought of the human body in terms of tantrik
elements.
In its earlier state, the Indian rasavidya, unlike
Ayurveda didnt accepted the pancabhuta theory or the
doctrine of the five elements. However, later on the
postulate that mercury, the principal alchemical
element, was itself composed of five elements gained

CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

METAL WORKING

The metal smiths in the central, eastern and southern parts

of India evolved intricate forms of both copper and bronze
images, which were fashioned hollow and solid castings on
a large scale by well-known cire-perdue process.
A number of bronze images of the Buddha, belonging to 911 AD, have been found in the ruins of the monastery at
Sirpur in Madhya Pradesh.
The icon-workmanship of the metal-smiths in Bengal had
considerable influence on the metal working in Nepal and
Tibet.
In south India, during the Chola period (9-13 AD) the cireperdue solid casting method was generally in vogue.
In this period there came out certain valuable literary
works which give details of the icon-making methods.
Manasollasa or Abhilasitarthacintamani attributed to the
King Somesvra Bhulokamalla of the Chalukya Dynasty in
the Karnataka area, written in the 1200 AD, has given a
very clear account of the icon-casting process.
The icons of the medieval period were indeed noted foe

Copper Buddha
Statue
found in
Courtesy:

Sword Making

 Iron smelting and forging operations-skilful and imaginative

metal-smiths of India-and Iron beams in temples in Puri (239)
and Konark(29) in Orissa-probable date of these beams may
be about the 13th century AD- made up of wrought ironComposition: Iron-99.64%; Manganese-nil; carbon and
sulphur-traces; phosphorus-0.15%; specific gravity-7.8- more
or less similar in composition to that of the Iron Pillar at
Delhi-238 high.
Iron Pillar at Dhar, the ancient capital of Malwa (MP)length:438 - made up of wrought iron- now lying broken in 3
pieces- and as Neogi puts it, it must not be forgotten that the
Dhar Pillar in its completed condition would be the biggest
iron pillar in the whole world-this pillar belongs to 12 th
century AD.
Achaleswar temple, Mount Abu-Iron pillar belonging to 15 th
century AD-129 high with a Saiva trident on its top.
In the medieval period, there were many centres famed for
making the damascened swords-with patterns on the surfacemade up of high quality steel- reveals dexterity of the metal
smiths.
In Moghul period-large metallic guns- made of bronze and

Iron Pillar at Dhar, MP

Iron bars at Sun temple, Konark

Iron
Pillar,
Delhi

Dwaja stambha at Mookambika temple in Mang

tesy: http://historum.com/asian-history/72289-iron-pillar-delhi.html

Tala Patra

Tamra patra

Birch bark

Preservatio
n of Ancient
Literature
Bhruja patra

Courtesy: Google Imag

PAPER MANUFACTURING
Chinese knew paper making since 2nd century AD- Tsai-lun invented
the method of producing paper in 105 AD
The art of paper making was introduced into India by about 11th
century AD- probably from Nepal-which in turn might have obtained
from China
Western India might have obtained the knowledge of paper making
from Arabs-which learnt the process from Chinese around 8th century
AD
Ancient literature was preserved on Palm leaves- tala patra- in south
India and Birch bark- bhurja patra-in Kashmir and northern regions of
the country
In late 15th century AD, Kashmir produced attractive quality from pulp
of rags and hemp with lime and soda added to whiten the pulp
Other paper-producing centres-Panjab ( Sialkot), Oudh ( Zafarabad),
Bihar ( Bihar town and Arwal), Bengal (Murshidabad and Hooghly),
Gujrat (Ahemdabad), Aurangabad and Mysore
Sialkot produced a very high quality paper-Mansinghi, Nimttariri, and
Khasab-i-jehangiri
Zafarabad was known as Kaghdishaher Paper city- glossy and
strong paper from bamboo pulp-brownish in appearance-Unpolished
paper was also being produced there.
Gujrat produced largest quantity of paper in late 15th and early 16th

he technique of paper making:

Rags
were
thoroughly
cleansed,
boiled
and beaten into a
pulp with water to
the consistency of
cream

A finely woven
wire sieve was
dipped into the
vat (daba)

To size the paper

and render it fit
for
ink,
it
is
processed with a
gelatinous glue
After drying, the
paper was dipped
in mandi to render
it
non-porous,
dried
and
smoothened
by
passing it through
rollers
under
pressure

Sufficiently
saturated
paper
was withdrawn by
gently rolling it
round the stick
hung to dry
smoothened
and
polished
by
rubbing
it
on
wood with convex
side of a crankshell

A
horizontal
shaking
motion
Jute,
sunn,
Sheet is placed
was given to the
ambree, moorve,
between felt and
sieve-fibres
to
old
sacks
and
interlock-water
fishing nets were
subjected
to
draining
away
also used as raw
pressure
through fine holes
materials
in sieve
In late medieval period paper manufacture received great encouragement
under the Peshwas- main centres being Poona, Bijapur, Nasik and
Erandol- principally made of cotton clothes(rags), flax and wood pulp with

COSMETICS AND
Bhavana- infusion of
The knowledge and
fragrant powders
PERFUMERY
practical applications
with the desired
with the desired
liquids
Pacana digestion of
materials probably
for curing purposes

Bodha tempering
or intensifying the
perfume
The quantitative
and qualitative
aspects of these
processes merit
particular
attention as they
governed the
blending, curing or
intensification of

concerning cosmetics and

perfumery is contained in
Varahmihiras
Brhatsamhita. Gandhasara
of Gangadhara gives six
processes for the
preparation of cosmetics
as follows:

Vedha further
intensification or
excitation;
Dhupana- fumigation
with aromatic
incenses, vapour,
etc.;
Vasana preparation
of scents utilizing
the perfumes of
flowers

The
aromatic
Patra-leaves:talisapatra, jhula, ramakarpura,
substanc
pratapa, tulasi, murva and damana
es are
classified
into
Puspa- flowers:lavanga, mucukunda, campaka, surapuspi, priyangu
several
sephali
vargas
(categori
Phala- fruits: marica, kankola, suksmaila, jaiphala,
es) in the
renuka, haritaki, amalakimarica, kankola, suksmaila,
jaiphala, renuka, haritaki, amalaki
following
way:

Tvag bark: karpuratvak, lavangatvak, kharjurakausa, asokatvak

Kastha-wood: candana, agaru,

raktacandana, devadaru
Mula- roots: puskara mula, bhadramusta, gandhamusta

Niryasa- exudations: karpura,

silharasa, guggula
Jiva- organic: kasturi, nakhi,
sayala, madhu

References:

A Concise History of Science in India, Chapter 5: Chemical Practices and Alch

Pride of India: Chemistry

Thank You

LAYOUT OF RASASALA
Courtesy: Pride of India

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