Activated Sludge

Introduction

Activated sludge

wastewater being mixed with air or oxygen for a

length of time
develops a brown floc consisting of billions of
microorganisms and other material
Process provides the environment to keep these
aerobic microorganisms under controlled
conditions so they can remove most of the
suspended or dissolved organics from the
wastewater

Introduction

The environment is provided by four basic

systems:

Aeration
Sedimentation
return activated sludge (RAS)
waste activated sludge (WAS)

Introduction: Typical Activated Sludge

Process

Introduction: Definitions of Terms

ACTIVATED SLUDGE

MIXED LIQUOR

mixture of activated sludge and wastewater in the aeration tank

MIXED LIQUOR SUSPENDED MATTER (MLSS)

floc of microorganisms that form when wastewater is aerated

measure of the amount of suspended solids in the mixed liquor

expressed in mg/l

MIXED LIQUOR VOLATILE SUSPENDED MATTER

(MLVSS)

proportional to the microorganisms concentration in the

aeration tank

Introduction: Terminology

MEAN CELL RESIDENCE TIME (MCRT)

FOOD TO MICROORGANISM RATIO (F/M)

the average time a microorganism spends in the treatment

process
ratio of the amount of food expressed as pounds of COD (or
BOD) applied per day, to the amount of microorganisms,
expressed as the solids inventory in pounds of volatile
suspended matter.

RETURN ACTIVATED SLUDGE (RAS)

settled mixed liquor collected in the clarifier underflow and

returned to the aeration basin

Introduction: Terminology

WASTE ACTIVATED SLUDGE (WAS)

COMPLETE MIX ACTIVATED SLUDGE

excess growth of microorganisms which must be removed to

keep the biological system in balance. Various control
techniques have been developed to estimate the amount of WAS
that must be removed from the process
an ideal mixing situation where the contents of the aeration tank
are at a uniform concentration

PLUG FLOW ACTIVATED SLUDGE

an ideal situation where the contents of the aeration tank flows

along the length of the tank

Introduction: Terminology

BACK MIXING

TRANSVERSE MIXING (or CROSS ROLL)

organic loading range as measured by the F/M

CONVENTIONAL LOADING

practice of aerating the RAS before it is added to the mixed liquor

PROCESS LOADING

mixing in a direction across the direction of flow

SLUDGE REAERATION

mixing the contents of a tank in the longitudinal or flow oriented

direction

process loading of 0.2 to 0.5 lbs BOD applied/lb MLVSS/day

HIGH RATE LOADING

process loading of two to three times the conventional loading rate

Introduction: Terminology

EXTENDED AERATION LOADING

SETTLEABILITY

low rate loading that is one half to one tenth of the conventional
loading rate
measure of the volume occupied by the mixed liquor after settling in
a graduated cylinder for 30 minutes
generally expressed as a percentage based on the ratio of the
sludge volume to the supernatant volume

SOLIDS INVENTORY (VOLATILE SOLIDS)

amount of volatile suspended solids in the treatment system

Solids Inventory

Suspended matter (SS) that makes up the mixed

liquor consists of living and nonliving organic matter
The living organic matter is referred to as being
active and contains microorganisms responsible for
treating the wastewater
The more accurately the concentration of active
microorganisms is known, the more consistently the
activated sludge process can be controlled
Many attempts have been made to accurately
measure the "active" concentration of the SS

Solids Inventory

Common means of estimating the microorganism

concentration is the measurement of volatile
suspended matter (MLVSS)
All the organic material in the SS burns to carbon
dioxide and water in the MLVSS determination
Typically, 70-80 percent of the MLSS will be MLVSS

Solids Inventory

The MLVSS determination provides an approximation

of the concentration of living biological solids,
because the MLVSS also includes a nonliving fraction
Even so, the MLVSS has been found to be an
acceptable representation of "active" living
microorganisms in activated sludge

Treatment Flow

Return Activated Sludge (RAS) from the clarifier

underflow is combined with the influent
wastewater in the aeration tank to form the
mixed liquor
The mixed liquor is usually aerated for a period
of several hours in the aeration tank

Treatment Flow

Treatment Flow

During aeration, organic material in the wastewater is

converted into new microorganisms, adsorbed onto
floc particles and converted (oxidized) to various
other products, including carbon dioxide.
Mixed liquor flows through the aeration tank into the
clarifier, where it settles to form the RAS.
Clear liquid remaining above the settled mixed liquor
is called the secondary effluent, which is discharged
from the process.

Aeration Systems

Aeration provides
dissolved oxygen and
mixing of the mixed liquor and wastewater in
the aeration tank.
Factors influencing aeration requirements:
Organic loading
MLSS concentration
Temperature
Other

Aeration Systems

Maintain D.O. concentration between 1.0 mg/l and

3.0 mg/l.
If nitrification is required and the concentration falls
below 1.0 mg/l, nitrifying organisms become less
active.

Aeration Systems

Aeration is provided by either diffused or mechanical

aeration systems.
Diffused air systems consist of a blower and a pipe
distribution system that is used to bubble air into the
mixed liquor.
Mechanical aeration systems consist of pumps or
mixers

Activated Sludge Diagram

Diffused Air System

Diffused air systems are the most common types of

aeration systems used in activated sludge plants.

Produce fine or coarse bubbles.

Fine Bubble Diffusers

Fine bubble diffusers are easily clogged by biological

growth and by dirty air, resulting in high maintenance
costs.
The air supply for all fine bubble diffusers should be
filtered.

Fine Bubble Diffusers

Coarse Bubble Diffusers

Coarse bubble diffusers are usually made by drilling

holes in pipes or by loosely attaching plates or discs
to a supporting piece of pipe.
Have lower oxygen transfer efficiencies than the fine
bubble diffusers.

Coarse Bubble Diffusers

Surface Aerators

Two types of mechanical aerators in common use today

Surface
use a rotating propeller that pumps the mixed liquor
through the atmosphere above the aeration tank.
Oxygen transfer is achieved by the aerator propeller
spraying the mixed liquor through the atmosphere.

Surface Aerators

Floating or mounted on supports in the aeration tank

Materials such as epoxy coated steel are used in
the construction of surface aerators to reduce
corrosion
Oxygen transfer efficiency increases as the
submergence of the propeller is increased.
power costs also increase because more water is
sprayed

Surface Aerators

Oxygen transfer efficiencies are stated in terms of pounds

of oxygen transferred per horsepower per hour (lb
O2/hp/hr).

Surface aerators are sometimes equipped with draft tubes

to improve their mixing characteristics.

Mechanical Aerators

Floating or fixed
Brush
Other

Sedimentation System

As the mixed liquor flows out of the aeration

tank, it is transferred to a sedimentation unit
which is commonly called a secondary clarifier.
The secondary clarifier provides a reduction in
flow velocity allowing the mixed liquor to settle by
gravity to the bottom

The design and construction of secondary

clarifiers for activated sludge treatment
incorporates several methods for the removal
of settled sludge.
These generally include the conventional
sludge collection equipment found in
rectangular and circular primary
sedimentation units which collects to a central
hopper, and, in recent years, suction-type
collectors as shown in Slide 25.

Wasting & Return Rates

Constant MLVSS
Constant F:M Ratio
Constant Sludge Age
Return Rates

Constant
Variable
Intermittent

Process Control

A portion of the activated sludge is purposely

removed by wasting it from the process.
The wasting of sludge is necessary to maintain the
desired quantity (numbers) of active microorganisms
in the process

A basic idea behind successful operation of an

activated sludge system is to keep a balance of
microorganisms to the amount of food in the
wastewater.
Proper operation makes food the only part of
microorganisms' diet that limits their growth.

Process Control

If nutrients or oxygen limit the growth of the

microorganisms, they will not settle satisfactorily
in the clarifier.
The activated sludge process depends on
settling the mixed liquor so that it can be
returned to the aeration tank to keep in balance
with the organic material in the incoming
wastewater

Process Control

This balance is generally related to process loading

as expressed by the F/M ratio.
Inability to settle the mixed liquor can result in a high
concentration of suspended solids in the clarifier
effluent.

Nitrification Cycle

The first step in the process, conversion of ammonia

to nitrite and then to nitrate, is called nitrification
(NH3-NO2-NO3). The process is summarized in the
following equations:

NH4 + 3/2 O2 NO2- + 2H+ + H2O

NO2- + 1/2 O NO3-

Nitrification Cycle

It is important to note that this process requires and

consumes oxygen. This contributes to the BOD or
biochemical oxygen demand of the sewage. The
process is mediated by the bacteria Nitrosomonas
and Nitrobacter which require an aerobic (presence
of oxygen) environment for growth and metabolism of
nitrogen. Thus, the nitrification process must proceed
under aerobic conditions

Nitrification Cycle

The second step of the process, the conversion of

nitrate to nitrogen gas, is referred to as denitrification.
This process can be summarized as:
NO3- + 5/6 CH3OH 1/2 N2 + 5/6 CO2 + 7/6 H2O + OH-

Nitrification Cycle
Nitrogen Gas

Oxides of Nitrogen

Organic - N
Decaying
Matter

Industrial
Fixation
Fertilizer
(Ammonia,
Nitrate)

Nitrogen
Fixing
Bacteria

Ammonia
Nitrification

Assimilation

Nitrate

Denitrification

Ammonia, Nitrate
in WWTP Effluent
Nitrification in
Stream

Ammonia, Organic - N
in WWTP Influent
Denitrification in
Sediments
Biological Growth
in Stream

Nitrification Cycle

Toxicity

Ammonia toxicity

Ammonium
Nitrate
Nitrite

Process Control

30 minute settleability
range 400 to 800 ml/l
varies with individual plants
Aeration basin dissolved oxygen
1.0 to 3.0 mg/l

Process Control

Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids

70% of Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids

pH

range 6.0 to 9.0 Standard units

Ideal 6.8 to 7.4 Standard Units

Process Control

Temperature
Colder water may require longer treatment times
Industrial discharges may increase the temperature

Nitrogen Content
Phosphorus Content

Side Stream Impacts

Return activated sludge (RAS)

Supernatant from digester
Filtrate from solids processing

Troubleshooting

If conditions in the aeration system deteriorate,

undesirable microorganisms may thrive
Filamentous microorganisms
long, thread-like organisms with increased
surface area
more competitive for growth in conditions of
low DO or low nutrient concentrations

Troubleshooting

Filamentous organisms hinder settling

cause excessive bridging and matting of the floc
result in a mixed liquor which does not settle
well
Bulking sludge

Poor settleability associated with the presence of too

many filamentous organisms
Settles poorly
Operation in a bulking sludge condition may result in the
loss of the mixed liquor into the effluent

Troubleshooting

Approaches to cure bulking

treat the return activated sludge with oxidizing
agents, such as chlorine or hydrogen peroxide
improve the treatment conditions so environment
is less favorable to the growth of filamentous
organisms
Settling problems and solids losses can also occur
during high flow periods

Activated Sludge Process Variations

conventional
tapered aeration
complete mix
extended aeration
step aeration
contact stabilization
high rate
Sequential batch reactors
Fixed film suspended growth

Activated Sludge Process Variations

Variations involve changes in loading rates or a

physical rearrangement of the process
The various levels of process loading are described
by the F/M ratio and MCRT
Physical arrangement

structural arrangement of the aeration tank

various arrangements of the process streams that are used
to provide flexibility

Process Loading Ranges

The three basic ranges of process loading are for a

plant operating on a typical domestic wastewater at a
temperature of about 20 degrees centigrade

high rate

conventional rate

extended aeration

High Rate Loading

Takes advantage of the settleability of sludge

when the treatment system is loaded at a fairly
high rate
Level of treatment which results is comparable to
a typical high-rate trickling filter plant

Conventional Rate

Conventional process

MCRT values of 5 to 15 days

F/M ratios of 0.2 to 0.5 lbs BOD applied/lb MLVSS/day

Plants operating in the middle of this range produce

an excellent effluent quality and do not (in theory)
nitrify
Most large municipal treatment plants operate in the
conventional activated sludge zone
At the lower end of this loading range, better effluent
is sometimes produced, though problems can occur if
the plant slips slightly or goes completely into
nitrification

Conventional Rate

Filamentous growth and poor sludge settleability have

been associated with the conventional process at the
upper loading ranges
Dispersed growth and cloudy effluent are also quite
common
Usually the operator can see this sort of condition
coming by plotting a trend of the organic loading in his
treatment process (either the F/M ratio or the actual
MCRT)
Another sign of an "overloaded" condition

White foam may indicate a young sludge

Extended Aeration Rate

Extended aeration rate

The lowest range of process loading where successful

operation may be accomplished

Plants operating in this range

generally small in size

do not receive 24 hour supervision
Such plants are very conservative in design
MCRT of 20-40 days
F/M ratio of 0.05 to 0.15 lbs BOD applied/lb MLVSS/day.

Extended Aeration Rate

Sometimes referred to as the "total oxidation

process"
Term is derived from the fact that these plants are
designed with such low loadings that theory predicts
that all influent BOD will be converted to CO2

Extended Aeration Rate

Effluent of the extended aeration process often contains

small pinpoint floc, which may be observed passing over
the weirs of the secondary clarifier
In the higher end of the loading range, a number of
operating problems may occur
Because the entire aeration range is in the nitrification
zone, denitrification and rising sludge problems may result
brown, greasy foam
Filaments
poor settleability

Activated Sludge With Re-aeration

Re-aeration processes are variations in the

arrangement of the process streams
All sludge re-aeration processes involve stabilization
by aeration of the return sludge prior to its contact
with the untreated wastewater
Most examples require different ratios between the
amount of return sludge under aeration and the
amount of sludge in the contact section of the
process

Activated Sludge
With Re-aeration

Contact stabilization and step aeration (step

feed) are two variations of sludge re-aeration
Both processes represent the extremes of the
contact/stabilization ratio; however, both have
established a successful record of performance

Activated Sludge
With Re-aeration

Successful process installations with

contact/stabilization ratios over the whole range
between contact stabilization and step feed can be
found in great numbers
Most have been shown to greatly increase the
capacity of the activated sludge process to handle
high organic loadings in smaller aeration tank
volumes

Contact Stabilization

Step Feed

Complete Mix

References

Kerri, Kenneth D., et al. Operation Of Wastewater

Treatment Plants. Third Edition, 1990, Vol. I,
California State University, Sacramento.
EPA Process Control Manual. Aerobic Biological
Wastewater Treatment Facilities. March 1977. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water
Operations, Washington D.C.
Water Environment Federation. Design of Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Plants. Fourth Edition, 1998,
Volume II.