Database

Management System
Group 1

Flat-File Versus Database Environments

Computer processing involves two components: data
and instructions (programs).
Conceptually, there are two methods for designing
interface between programs and data:
file-oriented (flat-file) processing: A specific data
file was created for each application [legacy
systems]
data-oriented processing: Create a single data
repository to support numerous applications
[current systems]
Disadvantages of file-oriented processing include
redundant data and programs and varying
formats for storing the redundant data.

File-Oriented (Flat-File) Environment

User 1(Sales)
Transactions
User 2 (A/R)
Transactions

User 3 (Payroll)
Transactions

Data
Program 1

Program 2

Program 3

A,B,C

X,B,Y

L,B,M

Where B is a customer record. Assume Bs address changes. Each user

that works with the B record must modify the address, increasing chance
for error.

Database Approach
User 1 (Sales)
Transactions
User 2 (A/R)
Transactions

User 3 (Payroll)
Transactions

Database
Program 1

Program 2

Program 3

D
B
M
S

A,
B,
C,
X,
Y,
L,
M

With the database approach, any User could change Bs address - it would be
changed for all users. changes. [Assume all users have authority to change
the

Data Redundancy & Flat-File

Problems
Data Storage - creates excessive storage
costs of paper documents and/or magnetic
form
Data Updating - any changes or
additions must be performed multiple
times (see example of Bs address)
Currency of Information - potential
problem of failing to update all affected
files
Task-Data Dependency - users inability
to obtain additional information as his or
her needs change

Data sharing/centralized database resolves

flat-file problems:
No data redundancy - Data stored only once,
eliminating data redundancy and reducing storage
costs.
Single update - Because data are in only one place,
requires only single update procedure, reducing
time/cost of keeping database current.
Current values - Change to database made by any
(authorized) user yields current data values for all
other (authorized) users.
Task-data independence - As users information
needs expand beyond immediate domain, new needs
can be more easily satisfied than under flat-file
approach

The Database Management System

Three conceptual mode
Hierarchical Model
Network Model
Relational Model
Elements of Database Management System
Users
Database Management System
Data Definition Language
Data Manipulation Language
Query Language
Database Administrator

Database Management System

Features:
Program development
Back up and recovery
Database usage reporting
Database access

Data Definition Language

Internal view
Conceptual view (schema)
User view (sub schema)

DBMS Operation
A user program sends a request for data
to DBMS.
The DBMS analyzes the request by
matching the called data elements
against the user view and the
conceptual view.
The DBMS determines the data structure
parameters from the internal view and
passes them to the operating system,
which performs the actual data retrieval.

Using the appropriate access

method, the operating system
interacts with the disk storage
device to retrieve the data from
the physical database.
The operating system then
stores the data in a main
memory buffer area managed by
the DBMS.

The DBMS transfer the data to

the users work location in main
memory. At this point, the users
program is free to access and
manipulate the data.
When processing is complete.
Steps 4, 5, and 6 are reversed to
restore the processed data to
the database.

Data Manipulation Language

Is the proprietary programming
language that a particular database
model uses to retrieve, process, and
store data

Structured Query Language

SQL is a non-procedural language with many
commands that allow users to input, retrieve, and
modify data easily.
Basic commands:
SELECT get data from a database table
UPDATE change data in a database table
DELETE remove data from a database table
INSERT INTO insert new data in a database
table

Data Dictionary
Describes every data element in the
database
This enables all users to share a
common view of the data resource
and greatly facilitates the analysis of
user needs

Physical Database
is a representation of a data design
which takes into account the facilities
and constraints of a given database
management system.

Relational Database Model

is a digital database whose
organization is based on the
relational model of data, as proposed
by E.F. Codd in 1960. This model
organizes data into one or more
tables (or "relations") of rows and
columns, with a unique key for each
row.

Each row in a table has its own

unique key, rows in a table can be
linked to rows in other tables by
storing the unique key of the row to
which it should be linked (where such
unique key is known as a "foreign
key").

Relational Database
Concepts

Entity, Occurrence, and

Attributes

Entity
anything about which the
organization wishes to capture
data.
Two kinds of entity:
Physical
Conceptual

Entity, Occurrence, and Attributes

Data Model
- is the blueprint for ultimately
creating the physical database.
Entity Relation (ER) Diagram
- graphical representation used
to depict the model.

Data Model using ER Diagram

Send
s

Custo
mer

Payme
nt

Buys

Produc
t

Entity, Occurrence, and Attributes

Occurrence
- is used to describe the number
of instances or records that
pertain to a specific entity.
Attributes
- are the data elements that
define an entity.

Associations and Cardinality

The labeled line connecting two
entities in a data model
describes the nature of the
association between them.

Associations and
Cardinality
Cardinality
- is the degree of association between
two entities.
4

basic forms:
0, 1
1,1
0,M
1,M

Cardinality Notation
Crows foot
Write the cardinal values on
each end of the association line
connecting the two entities

Physical Database Tables

Four characteristics of properly designed tables:
The value of at least one attribute in each
occurrence must be unique, which is the primary
key. Other attributes need not to be unique.
All attribute values in any column must be of the
same class.
Each column in a given table must be uniquely
named. However, different tables may contain
columns with the same name.
Tables must conform to the rules of
normalization.

Linkages Between
Relational Tables
Foreign keys
- physically connect related
tables to achieve the
associations described in the
data model.

Linkages Between Relational Tables

User Views
- the set of data that a particular
user sees.
Two types of views Two kinds of
views:
- Digital
- Simple
- Physical
- Complex

Anomalies, Structural
Dependencies, and Data
Normalization

Database Anomalies
First Normal Form (1NF)
Second Normal Form (2NF)
Third Normal Form (3NF)

Three Types of Anomalies

(anomalies are found in Unnormalized tables)

Update Anomaly: Modification on

attribute must be made in each of
rows in which attribute appears.
Insertion Anomaly: New item
cannot be added to table until at
least one entity uses particular
attribute item.
Deletion Anomaly: If attribute item
used by only one entity is deleted, all
information about that attribute item
is lost.
Anomalies can be corrected by

Normalizing Tables
The database anomalies described
are symptoms of structural
problems within tables called
dependencies.
repeating groups
partial dependencies
transitive dependencies

Normalization Process involves

identifying and removing
structural dependencies from
tables under review.

Linking Normalized
Tables
if 1:1 association, either of tables
primary keys may be foreign key.
if 1:M association, primary key of the
ONE side is embedded as foreign key in
the MANY side.
if M:M (M:N) association, create separate
linking table.

Accountants and Data

Normalization

Accountants and Data Normalization

Data Normalization
Technical matter
Responsibility of systems professionals
Update anomaly generate conflicting and obsolete
database values
Insertion anomaly result in unrecorded transactions
and incomplete audit trails
Deletion anomaly cause the loss of accounting records
and the destruction of audit trails

Accountants and Data Normalization

Accountants
Should have an understanding of
the process and be able to
determine whether a table is
properly normalized

DESIGNING RELATIONAL DATABASES

View Modeling six phases of database
design
1. Identify Entities
2. Construct a data model showing entity
associations
3. Add primary keys and attributes to the model
4. Normalize the data model and add foreign
keys
5. Construct the physical database
6. Prepare the user views.

1. Identify Entities
To pass as valid entities, two
conditions need to be met:
1. An entity must consist two or
more occurrences.
2. An entity must contribute at least
one attribute that is not provided
through other entities.

Purchasing system
1. The purchasing agent reviews the inventory status
report for items that need to be reordered.
2. The agent selects a supplier and prepares online
purchase order.
3. The agents prints a copy of the purchase order.
4. The supplier ships inventory to the company. Upon its
arrival, the receiving clerk inspects the inventory and
prepares an online receiving report. The computer
system automatically updates the inventory records.

2. Construct a Data Model Showing

Entity Associations
Determine the associations
between entities and document
them with and ER diagram.
Associations represent business
rules.

2. Construct a Data Model Showing

Entity Associations
Updates

0,
M:M

Contains

Inventory

Supplies

0,
M:M

M:M
Supplier

Receiving
Report

Sent
to
1: 0,
M

Is
associated
1: 1
with

Purchase
Order

Add Primary Keys and Attributes to the

Model

Prepare the user views

normalize tables should support
all required views of system users
user views restrict users from
have access to unauthorized data

Global View Integration

View Integration is combining
the data needs of all users into a
single schema or enterprise-wide
view.

Database in a Distributed
Environment
Centralized Databases
- remote users send requests via
terminals for data to the central site, which
processes the requests and transmits the
data back to the user.
- the central site performs the functions of
file manager that services the data needs of
the remote users.

Data Currency in a DDP Environment

-

During data processing, account balances pass through a state of

temporary inconsistency, in which their values are incorrectly stated.

To Illustrate, consider the computer logic for recording the credit sale of
P2,000 to customer James

INSTRUCTION
AR-Jones

DATABASE VALUES
AR-Control

START
1. Read AR-Sub account (Jones)
1,500
2. Read AR-Control account
10,000
3. Write AR-Sub account (Jones) +2,000
3,500
4. Write AR-Control account +2,000
END

12,000

Data Lockup
- To achieve data currency, simultaneous
access to individual data elements by
multiple sites needs to be prevented
- Software control (usually a function of
the
DBMS)
that
prevents
multiple
simultaneous accesses to data.

Distributed Databases
- It can be distributed using either partitioned or
replicated technique
Partitioned Database
- Splits the central database into segments or
partitions that are distributed to their primary users.
The advantage of this approach are:
1. Storing data at local sites increases users control
2. Permitting local access to data and reducing the
volume of data that must be transmitted between
sites improves transaction processing response
time
3. Reduce the potential for disaster

 Replicated Databases
- Effective in companies in which there exists
a high degree of data sharing but no primary
user.
- Data traffic between sites is reduced
considerably
- Supports read-only queries
Concurrency Control
- The presence of complete and accurate
data at all remote sites.
- Systems designers need to employ methods
that transactions processed at each site are
accurately reflected in the databases at all other

Distinguishing features
of Structured and
Relational databases