Discourse

Analysis
presented to
Madam Rabia Akram
by
Muhammad Sajid us Salam
Mphil Linguistics
Islamia University
Bahawalpur
cupidlucid@gmail.com

Overview

What is Discourse Analysis?

The origin of the term Discourse Analysis
Importance of Discourse Analysis
Difference between text and discourse
Textual functions
Cohesion and Coherence
Cohesive Devices
Interpersonal functions
Conventions of conversations like turn-taking
Co-operative principle
Background knowledge

DA and Zelling
Harris

The term discourse analysis was

first employed by Zelling Harris
as the name for a method for
the analysis of the connected
speech or writing for continuing
descriptive linguistics beyond
the limit of a single sentece at a
time and for correlating culture
and language ( Harris 1952)

The meanings of discourse

The word discourse is an elastic term,
The word discourse has a complex history. It is used
in a range of different ways by different theorists.
Originally the word discourse comes from Latin,
discursus which denoted conversations, speech.
As a noun it can mean verbal communication, talk,
formal speech or writing on a subject and a unit of
text used by linguists for the analysis of linguistic
phenomena that range over more than one
sentence

Definition of Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis is the study of how
stretches of language used in
communication assume meaning,
purpose and unity for their users: the
quality of coherence (Encyclopedic
Dictionary of Applied Linguistics by Keith
Johnson and Helen Johnson,1998)

Two domains of language

TEXT/
SENTENCE
Text is a message
coded in auditory
or visual medium
Essays, notices,
road signs etc

DISCOURSE
Interpersonal
activity/ transaction
between speaker
and hearer
Written as well as
spoken
Interviews,
commentaries,
speeches, etc

Difference between Text

and Discourse
According to David Crystal Discourse analysis focuses
on the structure of naturally o
ccuring spoken language, as found in such discourses
as conversations, interviews, commentaries and
speeches.
Text analysis focuses on the structure of written
language, as found in such texts as essays, notices,
road signs and chapters.
According to Geoffery Leech and Michael Short;
discourse is linguistic communication seen as
transaction between speaker and hearer, as an
interpersonal activity whose form is determined by its
social purpose.

What do we do in Discourse
Analysis?
We analyze and investigate all those features of that
are part of the total communicative act: context of
utterance, relationships, mode of discourse and so on
Conversational behavior is observed
Conventions of conversation (turn-taking)
Strategies for beginning and ending a conversation
How topics appear and disappear
How different speech acts (e.g. politeness) are
performed
To establish underlying norms of conversation

Agenda of Discourse Analysis

To establish underlying norms of
conversation that people implicitly follow by
Conversational behavior is observed
Conventions of conversation turn-taking)
Strategies for beginning and ending a
conversation
How topics appear and disappear
How different speech acts (e.g. politeness)
are performed

Two main areas of DA

It is centrally occupied with

two main linguistic functions:
The interpersonal
Textual

Linguistic functions of DA
Interpersonal

Textual

Because it
focuses on the
way in which we
use language as
a means of
interacting with
others

Because it also
focuses on our
ability to
construct
coherent/cohesiv
e texts.
Texts can be
written or spoken

Importance of Discourse
Analysis
Since it has a large agenda, it continues to
have a wide appeal
Language is irreducible part of social life
In speech behavior not only linguists but
sociologists, anthropologists and
psychologists are also interested.
DA is helpful in other forms of analysis like
ethnography( the study of races of people)

Coherence
and cohesion
Textual function

Difference between
Cohesion and Coherence
Cohesion in a text comes from the rules of sentence
connection.
Coherence means the degree to which a piece of
discourse makes sense.
The following is an example of both cohesion and
coherence.
A : Can you go to Lahore tomorrow?
B: Yes, I can.
In this example second sentence is linked with first
in sequential order. This is cohesion. It is also
coherent because B has given an appropriate
response to A.

Example of coherence
In the following example the
aforementioned concept will be more clear.
A: Can you go to Lahore tomorrow?
B: there is a general strike.
Thus two sentences are not cohesive
because the second sentence is not linked
to the first sentence in a grammatical
sense. There is no repetition or obvious
connection between the two sentences.

Cohesive Devices
Pronouns or Substitution: In order to avoid repeating
the same words several times in one paragraph it is
replaced, most often by one, do or so.
Ellipsis: It is very similar to substitution, however, it
replaces a phrase by a gap. (Omission of noun, verb, or a
clause on the assumption)
Conjunctions: Specifies the relationship between clauses
or sentences. Most frequent relations of sentences are:
addition (and, moreover), temporality (afterwards, next)
and causality (because, or since).
Reference: The use of words which do not have meanings
of their own, such as pronouns and articles.
Lexical cohesion: Denotes links between words which
carry meanings: verbs, nouns, adjectives. There are two
types of lexical cohesion namely reiteration and
collocation.

Conversational
Interaction
The underlying rules of
conversation that people
implicitly follow
(Interpersonal function)

Conversational
interaction
Conversation is an activity where two or
more people take turns at speaking.

interactio
n

How B comes to know that

its his or her turn?

Signaling of completion point( by the speaker)

Ways of signaling completion point
1. by asking a question
2. by giving a pause at the end of
sentence.

Signaling by the listener to say something.

1. B. starts to make short sounds while A is talking.
2. Body shifts.
3. Facial expressions.

Strategies of conversational
interaction.
Normal expectations
Completion points are marked by the end of a sentence
and a pause.
1. One way to keep the turn is to avoid having those
two indicators occur together.
2.Make your sentences run on by using connectors such
as and, and then, so, but
3. Place your pauses at points where the message is
clearly incomplete.
4. Preferably fill the pauses with hesitation markers
such as err en; un um

Example
A: thats their favorite restaurant because
they. In France they couldnt believe it
that.you know that they had.that they
had had better meals back home.
Note: Pauses are placed before or after
verbs rather than at the end of the
sentences.

Example
X: I mean his other..em his
later films were much more.er
really more in the romantic style
and tht was more what what he
was.you knowem best at
doing.

Note of
Caution.

These strategies should not be

considered undesirable.
These are a part of daily conversation.
These make conversation work.
These strategies make possible a noncooperative discourse.

Co-operative
principle

Interpersonal function

Co-operative
principle

The underlying in most conversational

exchanges assumption seems to be that
the participants are in fact cooperating
with each other
Meaningful communication takes place
where people are cooperative
It is certainly true that, on some occasions,
we can experience conversational
exchanges in which the cooperative
principle does not seem to be in operation
but in most cases this principle is observed

Supportive maxims of cooperative principle

1.quantity (the right required amount of
information)
2.quality (say true no false)
3.Relation (be relevant)
4.Clarity (avoid obscurity, be brief and
orderly)
Conversational implicature
When someone violates any of the maxims,
implied meaning arise

Example
A. Where is my box of
chocolate?
B. the children were in your
room, this morning.
B violates the maxims of relation because
reply is not relevant to As question. It
implies that children may have taken the
chocolate.

Background Knowledge

Interpersonal function

Background
knowledge
Schema
Script

Activity of background
knowledge
Bashir was on his way to school.
He was worried about the math lesson.
Last weak he had been unable to control
the class.
It was unfair of the math teacher for
leave him incharge.
After all, it is not a normal part of a
clerks duties

Thank You