Digital Circuit Implementation

Wafers and Chips

Integrated circuit (IC) chips are manufactured on

silicon wafers

Transistors are placed on the wafers through a

chemical etching process

Each wafer is cut into chips (dies)

which are then packaged individually

Chip Manufacturing Process

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IC Cost

Cost of an integrated circuit (IC) can be modeled

with three equations

Cost per die = (cost per wafer) / ((dies per wafer) * yield)

Dies per wafer (wafer area) / (die area)

Yield = fraction of dies on a wafer that pass testing

Ignores border of the circular wafer that cannot accommodate

a rectangular die

Yield = 1 / (1 + (defects per area * die area) / 2)2

Based on many years of empirical observations

Basic IC Chip Types

Logic circuits may be implemented

on single chip, or
using many chips interconnected on a printed circuit board
(PCB)

Main types of IC chips are:

Standard chips
Programmable Logic Devices (PLD)
Custom chips

Standard Chips

Small number of transistors (< 100)

Simple and fixed functions

Logic designer must decide how to interconnect

multiple chips for desired function

Agreed upon / standard functionality

Popular in the 1980s too large in physical size for

much industry use now (good for teaching though!)

7400 Series TTL Logic Chips

Gnd

The 7400 NAND Chip: pin layout

14

13

12

11

10

7400

Vcc = +5V

The equivalent logic layout

1
2

00
3

4
5

9
10

12
13

11

7400 Series Implementation

Implementing f = x1x2 + x2'x3 using 7400 series ICs

VDD

7404

7408

x1
x2
x3

7432

Why TTL is Only Used For Small Systems

PLDs

Programmable chips functionality determined by

the designer

Can handle more complex functions than standard

chips (approx 100 million transistors per PLD)

Can even be reprogrammed

FPGA: Field Programmable Gate Arrays

CPLD: Complex Programmable Logic Devices
PAL: Programmable Array Logic
PLA: Programmable Logic Arrays

These are used very extensively in industry

Custom Chips

Programmable chips have two major drawbacks:

Custom chips

Consume space due to large number of switches for

programmability
Slow speed also limited by excessive switches
(resistance/capacitance)

Logic designer builds a custom chip

Manufactured by a special fabrication facility ($$$!)

ASIC: Application Specific Integrated Circuit

Fast, small
Expensive! And takes time to build and manufacture

Digital Design Process

Design Loop for Digital Hardware

The basic design loop:

Design concept

Initial design takes

creativity and
experience
CAD tools are used
for simulation and to
work out details

Initial design

Simulation

Design correct?
Yes
Successful design

Redesign

No

The Entire Development Process

Required product

Design is only one part

Verification and testing
are also important this
is called design verification

Design specifications

Initial design

Simulation

Redesign

Design correct? No

Errors may not be uncovered

until after the prototype is made
Errors may not be uncovered
until after release!

Pentium bug

Yes
Implement prototype

Yes

Testing

Meets specs?
Yes
Finished product

Make corrections

Minor errors?
No

No

Simulation Phase

Functional simulation

Timing simulation

Test the circuit to determine if it correctly performs all the

functions that are required

Test the circuit to determine if it meets the timing

requirements
Correct functionality does not necessarily lead to fast speed

The physical design / layout will affect the timing

Inherent gate delays

Physical wiring leaves metal traces that have resistance

CAD Tools

There are a number of commonly used industry

standard CAD tools

CAD = Computer Aided Design

Altera, Cadence, Mentor Graphics, Synopsys, Synplicity,
Xilinx

We have Altera products

Tools are used for multiple purposes

Synthesis, timing simulation, functional simulation, layout

Can even download the design onto a PCB

CAD Tools vs Theory

Why learn any theory if the CAD tools do the work?

Initial design must be provided by the designer

Tools implement the theory

Quality of final design is a function of the quality of the initial

design

Designers need to understand how the tools work in order to

be effective in using them

Tools have many options

Knowing which to select requires knowing what they do and

how they do it