ME3122 - Conduction Notes 2014

National University of Singapore
Department of Mechanical Engineering

AY 2014/15 Semester 1
ME3122 HEAT TRANSFER
Lecturers & Tutors

Tutors
Lecturers
Adj Assoc Prof SG Lee
Office: E2-02-01
Email: mpeleesg@nus.edu.sg
Gong Feng
Hassanali Ghaedamini
Harouni
Prof Andrew Tay AO

Office: EA-07-19
Email: mpetayao@nus.edu.sg
ME3122 Heat Transfer
Objectives
To develop a basic understanding of the different
modes of heat transfer (Conduction, Convection &
Radiation) and their applications to Engineering
problems.
Major Topics
Conduction (SG Lee)
Steady, one-dimensional heat conduction with and without energy
generation
Unsteady heat conduction, lumped system analysis
Extended surfaces
Radiation (SG Lee)

Black and gray body radiation
Radiation between diffuse surfaces
Convection (AO Tay)
Hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers

Laminar and turbulent forced convection
Reynolds analogy
Free convection
Heat Exchangers (AO Tay)

UA-LMTD
Effective-NTU
Grading
Final Examination: 50%
Continual Assessment: 50%
Lab (2): 20%
Quizzes (2): 30%
Textbook & References

Textbook
Heat Transfer by J.P. Holman
McGraw-Hill Book Company
References
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer by Incropera and Dewitt
John Wiley & Sons
Heat and Mass Transfer by Y. A. Cengel
McGraw-Hill Book Company
INTRODUCTION TO
HEAT TRANSFER
Difference between
Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer
Thermodynamics tells us
How much heat is transferred?
How much work is done?
Final/equilibrium state of the system.
Heat transfer tells us

How (with what modes) heat is transferred?
At what rate is heat transferred?
Temperature distribution inside the body.
What is Heat Transfer?

Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a
temperature difference.
Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation,
vibration and electronic states of the atoms and molecules
that comprise matter. It represents the cumulative effect
of microscopic activities and is directly linked to the
temperature of matter.
Terminology
Quantity
Meaning
Thermal Energy Energy associated with

microscopic behavior of matter
Symbol
Units
U or u
J or J/kg
K or C
Temperature
A means of indirectly assessing

the amount of thermal energy
stored in matter
Heat Transfer
Thermal energy transport due to

temperature gradients
Heat
Amount of thermal energy

transferred over a time interval
t 0
Heat Rate
Thermal energy transfer per unit

time
W or J/s
Heat Flux
Thermal energy transfer per unit

time and per unit surface area
q"
W/m2
10
Application Areas of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer is commonly encountered in engineering
systems and other aspects of life.
A knowledge of heat transfer is necessary in order to
evaluate cost, the feasibility, and the size of the equipment
to transfer a specified amount of heat in a given time.
11
Modes of Heat Transfer
Conduction: Heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid (gas

or liquid) due to the random motion of its constituent atoms,
molecules and /or electrons.
Convection: Heat transfer due to the combined influence of
bulk and random motion for fluid flow over a surface.
Radiation: Energy that is emitted by matter due to changes
in the electron configurations of its atoms or molecules and
is transported as electromagnetic waves (or photons).
12
Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of energy
from the more energetic to less
energetic particles of a substance due
to interactions between the particles.
Conduction can take place in solids,
liquids, or gases.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due
to the collisions and diffusion of the
molecules during their random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combinations
of vibrations of the molecules in a
lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons.
13
Conduction (cont.)
Consider steady conduction through a plane wall of thickness x = L

and area A due to a temperature difference across the wall T = T2
T1.
Experiments have shown that the rate of heat conduction through the
plane wall is
T T
qx A
or
T1 T2
T
kA
L
x
where the constant of proportionality k is a
transport property, known as thermal
conductivity of the material.
qx kA
Note: Thermal conductivity k is a measure

of the ability of a material to conduct heat .
14
Conduction (cont.)
In the limiting case of x 0,
Heat Rate:
dT
W Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction
dx
dT
where
: Temperature gradient C/m or K/m
dx
Heat Flux:
qx kA
qx
qx
dT
k
A
dx
W/m
2
Note: The negative sign is because heat is conducted

in the direction of decreasing temperature.
15
Convection
Energy transfer by random molecular motion (as in
conduction) and bulk (macroscopic) motion of the fluid.
Advection: transport due solely to bulk fluid motion.
Types of convection
Forced convection: flow is caused by external means, e.g
fan, pump,wind
Natural (free) convection: flow induced by buoyancy forces
due to density differences arising from temperature
variations in the fluid.
Latent heat exchange associated with phase change
boiling and condensation.
16
Convection (cont.)
Relation of convection to flow over a surface and
development of velocity and thermal boundary layers:
Edge of BL
Convective heat transfer between a surface and a fluid can

be calculated by Newtons law of cooling:
q h Ts T
h: Convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)

17
Convective heat transfer coefficients

The heat transfer coefficient depends on surface geometry,
nature of the fluid motion, as well as fluid properties.
Flow
h (W/m2K)
Air, natural/free convection
6 30
Superheated steam or
air, forced convection
30 300
Oil, forced convection 60 1,800
Water, forced convection
300 6,000
Water, boiling
3,000 60,000
Steam, condensing
6,000 120,000
18
Radiation
Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter.
Energy is transported by electromagnetic waves (or
photons).
Can occur from solid surfaces, liquids and gases.
Does not require presence of a medium, e.g. solar energy
travels through vaccum
Radiation heat transfer at a gas/surface interface involves
radiation emission, E, from the surface and the absorption
of radiation incident from the surroundings (irradiation, G).
19
Radiation (cont.)
For an ideal emitter, or blackbody
Eb = T4s Stefan-Boltzmann law
where Ts: absolute temperature of surface (K)
: Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67x10-8 W/m2K4)
For a real (non-ideal) surface
E = Eb = T4s
where : surface emissivity (0 1)
Energy absorption due to irradiation G:
Gabs = G = T4sur
where : surface absorptivity (0 1)
For a gray surface, =
20
Radiation (cont.)
Irradiation: Special case of
surface exposed to large
surroundings of uniform
temperature, Tsur
If = , the net radiation heat flux from the surface due to
exchange with the surroundings is:
4
Eb G Ts4 Tsur
qrad
2
hr Ts Tsur where hr Ts2 Tsur
Note can express qrad
Ts Tsur
For combined convection and radiation,

qrad
h Ts T hr Ts Tsur
q qconv
21
Example 1
In a manufacturing plant, the walls and ceiling of an oven
are made of 200 mm thick fire-clay brick having a thermal
conductivity of 1.5 W/mK. During steady-state operation,
measurements reveal an inner surface temperature of
1200C and an outer surface temperature of 200C. The
internal dimensions of the oven are as follows:
Length = 4m, Width = 3m and the Height = 3m.
What is the rate of heat input required to maintain steadystate temperature inside the oven?
22
Solution for Example 1

Ti=
1200C
1200 200
700C
2
km 1.5 W/m K
To =
200C
3m
Tm
L=
200 mm
3m
4m
Total heat transfer area, A 2 4 3 3 3 4{ 3 54 m 2

1 44 2 4 43 ceiling
4 walls
q
dT
To Ti
k
k
L
A
dx
t
200 1200
1.5
0.20
7500 W/m 2
Rate of heat input required, q 7500 54 405 kW
Heat flux, q
23
Example 2
An insulated pipe supplying steam from a boiler runs
through a room where the air and walls are at 30C. The
outer diameter of the pipe is 100 mm and its surface
temperature is 250C. The natural convection heat transfer
coefficient from the surface to the air is 20 W/m 2K. Find
the rate of heat transfer from the surface due to
convection and radiation per unit length of pipe. For
radiation heat loss, the outer surface of the pipe may be
treated as blackbody surface.
24

Heat loss due to convection
qconv hA Ts T
Ts=
Do = 100 mm
Steam
h Do L Ts T
h = 20 W/m2K
qconv
20 0.10 250 30
L
1382.3 W/m
Heat loss due to radiation

qconv
4
qrad A Ts4 Tsur
250C
Tsur = T = 30C
Note:Absolute temp. in K
4
Do L Ts4 Tsur
qrad

qrad
5.67 108 0.1 5234 3034
L
1182.6 W/m
qconv
qrad
1382.3 1182.6 2565 W/m
qtotal
25
Example 3
The temperature in a house located at latitude 40N is
maintained at 23C with a temperature controller. The
temperature of the inner surfaces of walls, floors and the
ceiling of the house are found to be at an average
temperature of 12C in winter and 27C in summer. A
person with an external body surface area of 1.2 m 2 and
temperature of 32C remains in standing position for
fifteen minutes inside the room, where the temperature is
23C. Find the rate of radiation exchange between the
person and surrounding surfaces.
26

The emittance of person (external surfaces of the skin) 0.95
The rate of radiation heat exchange is given by
4
q A Ts4 Tsur
For summer,
Ts =32oC = 305 K, Tsur=27oC = 300 K
q 0.95 5.67 108 1.2 3054 300 4

35.8 W
For winter,
Tsur=12oC = 285 K
q 0.95 5.67 108 1.2 3054 2854

132.9 W
Although the thermostat setting is the same, one feels chilly in winter
and warm in summer.
27
Summary of Heat Transfer

Processes
Conduction
- Diffusion of energy due to random molecular motion
dT
- Fourier's Law of Conduction: qx k
dx
Convection
- Diffusion of energy due to random molecular motion
plus energy transfer due to bulk fluid motion
- Newton's Law of Cooling: q h Ts T
Radiation
- Energy transfer by electromagnetic waves
4
- Stefan-Boltzmann's Equation: q Ts4 Tsur
28
Exercise 1
1. In a cold climate, a house is heated either using electricity or gas or coal
to maintain the desired temperature. The roof of such a house is 5 m
long and 7 m wide, and 0.20 m thick, and is made of concrete having a
thermal conductivity of 0.8 W/mK. On a winter night , the temperatures
of the inner and outer surfaces of the roof are measured as 16C and
2C, respectively, for a period of 8 hours. Determine (i) the rate of heat
loss through the roof and (ii) the cost of heat loss to the home owner if
the cost of electricity is $0.17 per kWh.
2. An electrical heater, which consists of a rod 300 mm long and 10 mm in
diameter, is placed in room at 12C in steady state operation. Heat is
generated in the rod as a result of resistance heating and the surface
temperature is 140C under steady state operation. The voltage drop
and the current through the rod are measured and found to be 50 V and
2 A, respectively. Considering negligible heat losses by radiation,
estimate the convective heat transfer coefficient between the outer
surface of the rod and the air in the room.
3. A blackbody at 25C is exposed to solar radiation and the temperature
increased to 95C. Estimate the increase in radiation heat transfer.
29
Exercise 1.1
In a cold climate, a house is heated either using
electricity or gas or coal to maintain the desired
temperature. The roof of such a house is 5 m long
and 7 m wide, and 0.20 m thick, and is made of
concrete having a thermal conductivity of 0.8
W/mK. On a winter night , the temperatures of the
inner and outer surfaces of the roof are measured
as 16C and 2C, respectively, for a period of 8
hours. Determine (i) the rate of heat loss through
the roof and (ii) the cost of heat loss to the home
owner if the cost of electricity is $0.17 per kWh.
30
Solution Outline for Exercise 1.1

Heat loss from the roof
Ti To
q kA
, where tL thickness of the roof
14 2 Lt43
in kW
Amount of heat lost during 8 hours

Q = q no. of hours, kWh
Cost = (amount of energy in kWh) (unit cost of energy)
31
Exercise 1.2
An electrical heater, which consists of a rod 300
mm long and 10 mm in diameter, is placed in
room at 12C in steady state operation. Heat is
generated in the rod as a result of resistance
heating and the surface temperature is 140C
under steady state operation. The voltage drop
and the current through the rod are measured and
found to be 50 V and 2 A, respectively.
Considering negligible heat losses by radiation,
estimate the convective heat transfer coefficient
between the outer surface of the rod and the air in
the room.
32
Solution Outline for Exercise 1.2

Neglect radiation heat loss.
Under steady state operation, heat loss from the
surface by convection equals energy generated
within the rod due to resistance heating.
q = energy generated
= V I = (voltage drop, V) (current, A), W
q = heat lost by convection = hAs(Ts Ta), W
h = q / [As(Ts Ta)] =
,W/m2K
33
Exercise 1.3
A blackbody at 25C is exposed to solar radiation and the
temperature increased to 95C. Estimate the increase in
radiation heat transfer.
Solution Outline
Calculate emissive power at both temperatures. Increase
in radiation heat transfer is equal to the difference in
emissive power.
E1 = T14 , W/m2
E2 = T24 , W/m2
Increase in radiation heat transfer = E2 E1
34
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
35
Conservation of Energy
(First Law of Thermodynamics)
An important tool in heat transfer analysis, often providing
the basis for determining the temperature of a system.
Alternative Formulations
Time Basis:
At an instant
Over a time interval
Type of System:
Control volume
Control surface
36
Application to a Control Volume
Note representation of system by a

control surface (dashed line) at the
boundaries.
At an Instant of Time:
Surface Phenomena
E& , E& : rate of thermal and/or mechanical energy transfer across the control
in
out
surface due to heat transfer, fluid flow and/or work interactions.

Volumetric Phenomena
E& : rate of thermal energy generation due to conversion from another enegy form
g
(e.g., electrical, nuclear, or chemical); energy conversion process occurs

within the system.
E&st : rate of change of energy storage in the system.
Conservation of Energy
E&in E&out E&g E&st
Each term has units of J/s or W.
37
Application to a Control Volume (cont.)
Over a Time Interval:

Ein Eout E g Est
Each term has units of J.
38
Special Case Closed System
Transient Process for a Closed System of Mass (M)

Assuming Heat Transfer to the System (Inflow) and Work Done by the
System (Outflow),
Over a time interval
Ein Q
Eout W
Q W Est
For negligible changes in potential or kinetic energy
Q W U t
Internal thermal energy
At an instant
dU t
q W&
dt
39
Special Case Open System

Steady State for Flow through an
Open System without Phase Change
or Generation:
At an Instant of Time:
&
&
m ut pv V
gz q m ut pv V
2
in
pv flow work
gz
W& 0
2
out
ut pv i enthalpy
For an ideal gas with constant specific heat:
iin iout c p Tin Tout
For an incompressible liquid:
uin uout c Tin Tout
pv in pv out 0
40
Special Case Open System (cont.)

For systems with significant heat transfer:
in
gz in
2 out
gz out 0
For steady state conditions, no changes in kinetic or potential energy,

no thermal energy generation, negligible pressure drop:
& p Tout Tin

q mc
Simplified steady-flow energy equation
41
Surface Energy Balance
A special case for which no volume or mass is encompassed by the

control surface.
Applies for steady-state and transient conditions.
With no mass and volume, energy storage and generation are not
pertinent to the surface energy balance.
Consider surface of wall with heat transfer by conduction, convection
and radiation.
Conservation of Energy (Instant in Time):
E& E& 0
in
out
qconv
qrad
0
qcond
T1 T2
4
k
h T2 T 2 T24 Tsur
0
L
L
42
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
OF CONDUCTION
43
Introduction
Conduction refers to the transport of energy in a medium (solid, liquid

or gas) due to a temperature gradient.
The physical mechanism is random atomic or molecular activity.
Governed by Fouriers law.
In this section we will learn

The definition of important transport properties and what governs thermal
conductivity in solids, liquids and gases
The general formulation of Fouriers law, applicable to any geometry and
multiple dimensions
How to obtain temperature distributions by using the heat diffusion
equation
How to apply boundary and initial conditions
44
Thermal Conductivity
Recall from equation for heat conduction:
T1 T2
T
qx k
k
L
L
The proportionality constant is a transport property, known
as thermal conductivity k (units W/mK).
The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of the
ability of the material to conduct heat.
It depends on the physical structure of matter, atomic and
molecular, which is related to the state of the matter. It is
also a function of the temperature of the material.
Usually assumed to be isotropic (independent of the
direction of transfer): kx = ky = kz = k.
45
Thermal Conductivity: Solids

Solid comprised of free electrons and atoms bound in lattice.
Thermal energy transported through
Migration of free electrons, ke
Lattice vibrational waves (phonons), kph
k = ke + kph
To a first approximation, ke is inversely proportional to the electrical

resistivity, e
1
ke
e
Pure metals: e is low, ke >> kph

Alloys: e is substantially larger, contribution of kph to k is no longer negligible.
Non-metallic solids: k is determined primarily by kph.
Crystalline solids: regularity of the lattice arrangement has an important
effect on kph.
46
Thermal Conductivity: Fluids
The fluid state includes both liquids and gases.

Intermolecular spacing is much larger.
Molecular motion is random.
Thermal energy transport less effective than in solids thermal conductivity is
lower.
Kinetic theory of gases:
k c
where : density of the gas
c : mean molecular speed
: mean
free pathof(average
The thermal
conductivity
a gas distance travelled before a collision)
increases with increasing temperature and decreasing molecular weight because
of the associated increase in mean molecular speed.
is generally independent of pressure because density and mean free path are
directly and inversely proportional to the gas pressure, respectively.
47
Thermal Conductivity: Fluids (cont.)
Physical mechanisms controlling thermal conductivity in the liquid

state is not well understood.
The thermal conductivity of a liquid
generally decreases with increasing temperature (water is an exception).
is usually insensitive to pressure except near the critical point.
generally decreases with increasing molecular weight.
48
Thermal Conductivity: Insulation Systems

Thermal insulations consist of low thermal conductivity materials
combined to achieve an even lower system thermal conductivity.
Types of insulation systems
Fiber, powder and flake type insulations: solid material finely dispersed
throughout an air space.
Cellular insulations: when small voids or hollow spaces are sealed from each
other. Examples: foamed systems made from plastic and glass materials.
Several modes of heat transfer involved (conduction, convection,

radiation).
Effective thermal conductivity: depends on the thermal conductivity and
radiative properties of solid material, volumetric fraction of the air space,
structure/morphology (open vs. closed pores, pore volume, pore size
etc.).
Bulk density (solid mass/total volume) depends strongly on the manner
in which the solid material is interconnected.
49
Thermal Conductivity (cont.)
50
Thermal Diffusivity
In heat transfer analysis, the ratio of the thermal conductivity to the

heat capacity is an important property termed the thermal diffusivity .
k
cp
Thermal diffusivity measures the ability of a material to conduct

thermal energy relative to its ability to store thermal energy.
Materials with larger will respond quickly to changes in their thermal
environment, while materials of small will respond more sluggishly,
taking longer to reach a new equilibrium condition.
It is an important parameter in Transient heat transfer analysis
51
Fouriers Law
A rate equation that allows determination of the conduction heat flux
from knowledge of the temperature distribution in a medium.
Its most general (vector) form for multi-dimensional conduction is:
Implications:
q k T
Heat transfer is in the direction of decreasing temperature (basis for minus

sign).
Fouriers Law serves to define the thermal conductivity of the medium

k q/ T
Direction of heat transfer is perpendicular to lines
of
constant temperature (isotherms).

Heat flux vector may be resolved into orthogonal
components.
52
Fouriers Law Heat Flux Components

Temperature is a scalar field T x, y, z
Heat flux is a vector quantity. In Cartesian coordinates:
q q x i q y j q z k
for isotropic medium : q x k
T T T
q k
i
j
y
z
x
T
T
T
, q y k
, q z k
x
y
z
k k T
where three dimensional del operator in cartesian coordinates:
i
j k
x
y
z
53
Fouriers Law Heat Flux Components (cont.)

Cartesian Coordinates: T x, y, z
T T T
q k
i k
jk
k
x
y
z
qx
qz
qy
Cylindrical Coordinates: T r , , z
T
T T
q k
i k
jk
k
r
r
z
qr
qz
Spherical Coordinates: T r , ,
T
T
T
q k
i k
jk
k
r
r
r sin
q
q
qr
54
Heat Equation
A differential equation whose solution provides the
temperature distribution in a stationary medium.
Based on applying conservation of energy to a differential
control volume through which energy transfer is
exclusively by conduction.
Cartesian Coordinates:
55
Heat Equation (cont.)

By Conservation of Energy
E& E& E& E&
in
out
st
E&in q x q y q z
From Fourier's Law
T
T
q x kAx
k dy dz
x
x
T
T
q y kAy
k dx dz
y
y
T
T
q z kAz
k dx dy
z
z
56

E&out qx dx q y dy qz dz
Using Taylor series expansion
qx
T T
dx k dy dz
k dx dy dz
x
x x x
q y
T T
q y dy q y
dy k dx dz
k dx dy dz
y
y y y
qz
T T
qz dz qz
dz k dx dy
k dx dy dz
z
z z z
qx dx qx
57

& q& dx dy dz
E&g qdV
where q&: rate at which energy is generated per unit volume W/m3
T
T
E&st c p
dV c p
dx dy dz
t
t
T
where c p
: rate of change of sensible (thermal) energy per unit
t
volume W/m3
Substituting and simplifying:
58

Cartesian Coordinates:
T
T
T
T
&
k
c
Heat Equation
x x
y y
z
z
t
Net conduction of heat into the CV
Rate of
energy
generation
per unit
volume
Time rate of
change of
thermal
energy per
unit volume
At any point in the medium the rate of energy transfer by

conduction into a unit volume plus the volumetric rate of
thermal energy generation must equal the rate of change
of thermal energy stored within the volume.
59
Heat Equation Simplified Forms

For Cartesian Coordinates
If k = constant
2T
x 2
2T
y 2
2T
z 2
q& 1 T
k t
where
k
is the thermal diffusivity
c p
For steady state conditions

T
T
T
k
q& 0
x x
y y
z
z
For steady state conditions, one-dimensional conduction in xdirection, with constant properties and no energy generation
dqx
d dT
k
0
or
0 Heat flux is constant in the direction of transfer
dx dx
dx
60

Cylindrical Coordinates:
x= r cos
y= r sin
1
T
1 T
T
T
&
kr
c
p
z
r r
r
z
t
r 2
1D radial heat transfer :
1
T
T
kr
q c p
r r
r
t
61

Spherical Coordinates:
x= r sin cos
y= r sin sin
z= r cos
1 2 T
1
T
1
T
T
&
kr
k
sin
c
p
r

t
r 2 r
r 2 sin 2
r 2 sin
1D radial heat transfer :
1 2 T
T
kr
p
r 2 r
r
t
62
Boundary and Initial Conditions
Heat equation is a differential equation.

For transient conduction, heat equation is first order in time, requiring
specification of an initial temperature distribution: T x, t t 0 T x,0
Since heat equation is second order in space, two boundary
conditions must be specified. Some common cases:
B.C. of First Kind (Dirichlet condition): Constant Surface Temperature
Example: When surface is in contact with a melting solid or a boiling liquid.
T 0, t Ts
63
Boundary and Initial Conditions (cont.)

B.C. of Second Kind (Neumann condition): Constant Surface Heat Flux
Examples: When an electric heater is attached to a surface if the surface
is perfectly insulated.
Insulated Surface
Applied Flux
T
k
x
x 0
qs
T
x
0
x 0
B.C. of Third Kind: When convective heat transfer occurs at the surface
k
T
x
x 0
h T T 0, t
64
Methodology of a Conduction
Analysis
Specify appropriate form of the heat equation.
Solve for the temperature distribution (by applying the boundary and
initial conditions).
Apply Fouriers law to determine the heat flux.
Simplest Case: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction with No

Thermal Energy Generation.
Common Geometries:
Plane Wall: Described in rectangular (x) coordinate. Area perpendicular to
direction of heat transfer is constant (independent of x).
Tube Wall: Radial conduction through tube wall.
Spherical Shell: Radial conduction through shell wall.
65
1-D, STEADY-STATE
CONDUCTION WITHOUT
THERMAL ENERGY GENERATION
66
Introduction
Conduction problems may involve multiple directions and
time dependent conditions.
Inherently complex difficult to determine temperature
distributions.
One-dimensional steady-state models can represent
accurately numerous engineering systems.
In this section, we will
Learn how to obtain temperature profiles for common geometries
with and without heat generation.
Introduce the concept of thermal resistance and thermal circuits.
67
Plane Wall
Consider a plane wall between two fluids of different temperature.

Assume 1-D, steady state conduction without heat generation.
Heat Equation:
d dT
k 0
dx dx
or
dq x
0
dx
dT
Implications: Heat rate qx kA is constant.

dx
Boundary Conditions: T 0 Ts ,1, T L Ts ,2

If k constant
d 2T
2
dx
Integrating twice gives
T C1x C2
68
Plane Wall (cont.)

Apply BC 1: T 0 Ts ,1,
C2 Ts,1
Apply BC 2: T L Ts ,2 ,
Ts ,2 C1L Ts ,1
C1
Ts ,1 Ts ,2
L
Temperature Distribution:
T x Ts ,1 Ts ,1 Ts ,2
x
L
Linear
Heat Rate:
dT kA
qx kA
Ts ,1 Ts ,2 constant
dx
L
69
Thermal Resistance
Recall from electric circuit theory - Ohm's law for
electrical resistance:
Electric current =
Potential Difference
Electrical Resistance
Can use this electric analogy to represent heat

transfer problems using the concept of a thermal
circuit
Driving Force
T
q
Thermal Resistance Rt
The temperature difference is the "potential" or
driving force for the heat flow.
70
Thermal Resistance (cont.)

Thermal resistance : Rt
T
q
unit K/W or C/W
Thermal Resistance for Unit Surface Area : Rt
T
ARt
q
unit m
K/W
For conduction:
Ts ,1 Ts ,2
kA
L
qx
T
s,1 s,2
cond
L
L kA
kA

Rcond
L
k

Rconv
1
h
For convection:
qconv hA Ts T
Ts T
1 hA
Rconv
1
hA
For radiation:
qrad hr A Ts Tsur
Ts Tsur
1 hr A
Rrad
1
hr A

Rrad
1
hr
2
where hr Ts2 Tsur
Ts Tsur
71
Thermal Circuit for Plane Wall

qx
T,1 Ts ,1
1 h1 A
Ts,1 Ts ,2
L kA
Ts,2 T,2
1 h2 A
In terms of overall temperature difference:

T,1 T,2
qx
Rtot
As the conduction and convection
resistances are in series and may be sumed,
Rtot Rt
1
L
1
h1 A kA h 2 A
72
Composite Plane Wall
qx
qx
T,1 Ts ,1
1 h1 A
Ts ,1 T2
LA k A A
T2 T3 T3 Ts,4 Ts ,4 T,4
LB k B A LC kC A
1 h2 A
T,1 T,4
Rtot
Rtot Rt
L
1
L
L
1
A B C
h1 A k A A k B A kC A h2 A
73
Composite Plane Wall (cont.)

Series Parallel Composite Wall:
Note departure from onedimensional conditions for
k F kG
.
Circuits based on assumption of
(a) isothermal surfaces normal to
x direction, or
(b) adiabatic surfaces parallel to
x direction,
qxBoth provide approximations for
and yield similar results
74
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U)
A modified form of Newtons Law of Cooling to encompass multiple

resistances to heat transfer.
qx UAToverall
1
UA
Rtot
Toverall
Rtot
U : Overall heat transfer coefficient
For the case of composite plane wall

L
1
L
L
1
Rtot
A B C
h1 A k A A k B A kC A h2 A
1
L
1
L
L
1
UA
A B C
Rtot h1 A k A A k B A kC A h2 A
1 LA LB LC 1
U

Rtot A h1 k A k B kC h2
1
75
Example 4
A double glazed window (height = 1 m and width =
1.5 m consists of two 4 mm-thick layers of glass
(k = 0.78 W/mK) separated by a 10mm thick
stagnant air space (k = 0.026 W/mK). Determine
the steady rate of heat transfer through this
double-glazed window. The temperature inside
the room is maintained at 22C while the ambient
(outdoor) is 32C. The convective heat transfer
coefficients of the inner and outer surfaces of the
window are hi = 12 W/m2K and ho = 48 W/m2K,
respectively, which include the effect of radiation.
76
2
W m K
A 1 1.5 1.5m 2
1
1
Ri
0.0555K/W
0
.
055
K
hi A 12 1.5 W
1R.5m 2l
0.004m
k1 A
78 W mK 1R.25m
l2
l3
0.004
0.0034 K/W
0.78 1.5
0.0034
K W
0.010
0.026 1.5 0.2564K/W
2l2
l1
22 C
32 C
k2 A
0.001m
R3 R1 0.0034
K/W K W
0
.
256
026 W mKR 1.5m1 2 1 0.0139 K/W
o
ho A 48 1.5
34 K W
Rtot Rt 0.3326 K/W
T
32 K
22W
overall
0
.
0139
30.1W
2
x 2
0.3326
8 W m K 1.5m Rtot
Ri
R1
R2
R3
Ro
0.3317 K W
22
77
Exercise 2
1. In an aluminum pan placed on a heater, heat is transferred steadily to
the boiling water. Find the outer surface temperature of the bottom of
the pan and the boiling heat transfer coefficient under the following
conditions:
The inner surface temperature of the bottom of the pan: 108C
Rate of heat transfer to the bottom of the pan:
600 W
Thermal conductivity of the aluminum pan material:
237 W/mK
The diameter of the pan:
250 mm
Temperature of water inside the pan:
95C
The thickness of the pan material:
5 mm
(Ans: 940 W/m2K 108.3C)
78
Contact Resistance
The temperature drop across the

interface between materials may be
appreciable, due to surface
roughness effects.
The associated thermal contact resistance
for a unit area of the interface is defined as
T T
" ''
Rc A B
q
x Rc
qx
Contact spots are interspersed with gaps (usually air filled).
As the contact area is typically small, the major contribution to the
resistance is made by the gaps (especially for rough surfaces).
Thermal contact resistance values depend on: Materials A and B,
surface finishes, interstitial conditions, and contact pressure.
79
Cylindrical Wall
Heat Equation
1 d
dT
kr
0
r dr
dr
Implications:
or
dqr
0
dr
dT
dT
Heat rate qr kA
k 2 rL
dr
dr
If k constant
is a constant in the radial direction.
1 d dT
r 0
r dr dr
T C1 ln r C2
80
Cylindrical Wall (cont.)

T C1 ln r C2
Boundary Conditions (BC)
1 T r1 Ts,1
2 T r2 Ts,2
BC 1 gives Ts ,1 C1 ln r1 C2
(1)
BC 2 gives Ts ,2 C1 ln r2 C2
(2)
Subtracting (2) from (1)

Ts ,1 Ts ,2
r2
C1 ln r1 ln r2 C1 ln
r1
Hence, C1
Ts ,1 Ts ,2
ln r2 r1
81

Ts ,1
Ts ,1 Ts ,2
ln r2 r1
ln r1 C2
Hence, C2 Ts ,1
Ts ,1 Ts ,2
ln r2 r1
ln r1
T r Ts ,1 Ts ,1 Ts ,2
ln r r1
ln r2 r1
Logarithmic
Heat Rate:
qr kA
dT
dT
k 2 rL
dr
dr
qr 2 Lk
Ts ,1 Ts ,2
ln r2 r1
constant
Ts,1 Ts,2
Rt
82

Thermal Resistance:
Rt
ln r2 r1
for cylindrical wall
2 Lk
In terms of equivalent thermal circuit:
T,1 Ts ,1
Ts ,1 Ts ,2
Ts,2 T,2
T,1 T,2
qr
1 h1 2 r1L ln r2 r1 2 Lk 1 h 2 2 r2 L
Rtot
Rtot Rt
ln r2 r1
1
1
h1 2 r1L
2 Lk
h 2 2 r2 L
83
Composite Cylindrical Wall
qr
Rtot
T,1 Ts ,1
Ts ,1 T2
T3 Ts ,4
Ts ,4 T,4 T,1 T,4
T T
2 3
1
1
ln r2 r1 ln r3 r2 ln r4 r3
Rtot
h1 2 r1L
h4 2 r4 L
2 Lk A
2 Lk B
2 LkC
ln r2 r1 ln r3 r2 ln r4 r3
1
1
Rt
2 r1Lh1
2 Lk A
2 Lk B
2 LkC
2 r4 Lh4
84
Example 5
Steam at a temperature of 300C flows through a cast iron
pipe (k = 75 W/mK) whose inner and outer diameters are
50mm and 55mm respectively. The pipe is covered with
25mm thick glass wool insulation (k = 0.05 W/mK). Heat
is lost to the surroundings at 30C by convection and
radiation, with a combined heat transfer coefficient of 25
W/m2K. The heat transfer coefficient at the inner wall of
the pipe is 65 W/m2K. Find the rate of heat loss from the
steam per unit length of the pipe. Find the temperature
drop across the wall of the pipe and the insulation. Also
find (UA) for the pipe.
85
Solution Outline for Example 5

T2
T3
Let Ti = Temperature of fluid inside the tube

T1 = Temperature of inner wall of the
tube
T2 = Temperature of outer wall of the
tube
T3 = Temperature of the outer surface
of the insulation
To = Temperature of surrounding fluid
Ti
T1
T2
T3
T1
Ti
r1
r3 r 2
T0
To
R1
=1/h 1 A 1
R2
R3
R4
86
Solution Outline for Example 5 (cont.)

Considering L 1 m
1
1
R1
0.098C/W
hi 2 r1L 65 2 0.025 1
R2
R3
R4
ln r2 r1
2 Lk A
ln r3 r2
2 Lk B
ln 0.0275 0.025
2 75 1
0.0002C/W
ln 0.0525 0.0275
2 0.05 1
2.058C/W
1
1
0.1212C/W
ho 2 r3 L 25 2 0.0525 1
Rtot Rt 0.098 0.0002 2.058 0.1212 2.2774C/W

Steady state heat loss:
T
300 30
q overall
118.55 W
Rtot
2.2774
87
Solution Outline for Example 5 (cont.)

Temperature drop across pipe wall:
T pw qR2
118.55 0.0002
0.02C
Temperature drop across insulation:
Tins qR3
118.55 2.058
243.97C
Notice Tins ? T pw
q UAToverall
Hence, UA
Toverall
Rtot
1
1
0.439 W/ C
Rtot 2.2774
88
Critical Thickness of Insulation for

Cylindrical pipe
Rate of heat transfer per unit length:
Ti T
T T
q
q
i
L ln r ri
Rtot
1
2 k
2 hr
ln r ri
1

Rtot
2 hr
1422 k43 {
Rconv
Rcond
Ti
To
T, h
ri
r
Insulation, k
ln r ri
1
2 hr
2 k
q
Ti
To
T
89
Critical Thickness of Insulation (cont.)

To find an optimum insulation thickness associated with the
,
value of r that minimized q or maximized Rtot
dR
Set tot 0
dr
1
1
0
2
2 kr 2 hr
k
r
h
d 2 Rtot
)
Check if
0(for max Rtot
2
dr
d 2 Rtot
1
1
dr 2
2 kr 2 hr 3
90
k d 2 Rtot
1
1
1 1
)
At r ,
0 (min Rtot
2
2
2
3
h dr
k h k 2k
k h
rcrit
k
is the critical insulation radius for which the total resistance
h
is a minimum, not a maximum. Therefore, an optimum insulation

thickness does not exist!
91
92

r = rcrit: Resistance to heat transfer is minimum heat
transfer rate reaches a maximum.
r < rcrit: Addition of insulation increases heat transfer rate.
Electric cables are designed for maximum heat
dissipation, hence the insulation thickness should be
around the critical value.
r > rcrit: Addition of insulation decreases heat transfer rate.
To reduce heat losses, the insulation thickness should be
much greater than the critical value.
93
Example 6
An electric wire, diameter d = 3 mm and length L = 5 m, is
tightly wrapped with a 2 mm-thick plastic cover (thermal
conductivity, k = 0.15 W/mK). Measurements indicate that
a current of 10 A passes through the wire causing a
voltage drop of 8 V. The wire is exposed to an environment
at 32C with a convective heat transfer coefficient, h = 12
W/m2K. Determine the temperature at the interface of the
wire and the plastic cover in steady operation. Also,
evaluate whether doubling the thickness of the plastic
cover will increase or decrease this interface temperature.
94

Under steady operating condition, rate of heat transfer
is equal to the heat generated within the wire.
q VI 8 10
80 W
1
1
Rconv
h 2 r2 L 12 2 0.0035 5
0.758 C/W
R plastic
Rtot
ln r2 r1
ln 0.0035 0.0015
2 kL
2 0.15 5
0.180 C/W
Rconv R plastic 0.758 0.180
0.938 C/W
95
Solution for Example 6 (cont.)

q
T1 T
Rtot
T1 T qRtot
32 80 0.938
107.0C
The critical thickness of insulation:
k 0.15
rcrit
h
12
0.0125m
12.5mm
r2 1.5 2 3.5mm, r2,new 1.5 2 2 5.5mm
Since r2 r2,new rcrit , doubling the thickness of the plastic cover
will reduce the total resistance and hence decrease the interface
temperature. T1
96
Spherical Wall
Heat Equation
1 d 2 dT
kr
0 or
2 dr
dr
r
Implications:
dqr
0
dr
dT
dT
Heat rate qr kA
k 4 r 2
dr
dr
If k constant
is a constant in the radial direction.
1 d 2 dT
r
0
2 dr
dr
r

C1
T C2
r
97
Spherical Wall (cont.)

C1
T C2
r
Boundary Conditions (BC)
1 T r1 Ts,1
2 T r2 Ts,2
C
BC 1 gives Ts ,1 1 C2
r1
(1)
C1
C2
r2
(2)
BC 2 gives Ts ,2
Subtract (2) from (1)

1 1
Ts ,1 Ts ,2 C1

r
2 r1
Ts ,1 Ts ,2
Hence, C1
1 r1 1 r2
98

Ts ,1 Ts ,2 1
C2
1 r1 1 r2 r1
Ts ,1 Ts ,2 1
Hence, C2 Ts ,1
1
r
1
r
1
2 r1
Ts ,1
Ts ,1 Ts ,2 1
Ts ,1 Ts ,2 1
s ,1
1
r
1
r
r
1
r
1
r
1
2
1
2 r1
T r
Ts ,1 Ts ,2 1 1
1 r1 1 r2 r1 r
Ts ,1
1 r1 1 r
T r Ts ,1 Ts ,1 Ts ,2
1 r1 1 r2
99

Heat Rate:
dT
dT
qr kA
k 4 r 2
dr
dr
Ts ,1 Ts ,2
4 k
1 r1 1 r2
qr
4 r1r2 k Ts ,1 Ts ,2
r2 r1
constant
Ts,1 Ts,2
Rt
Thermal Resistance:
Rt
r2 r1
4 kr1r2
for spherical wall
100
Summary of Results
For 1-D, steady state conduction with constant k and without heat generation
Heat equation
Plane Wall
Cylindrical Wall
Spherical Wall
d 2T
1 d dT
r 0
r dr dr
ln r r1
Ts ,1 T
ln r2 r1
1 d
2 dT
r
0
2 dr
dr
r
dx 2
Temperature
distribution
Heat flux (q)
Heat rate (q)
Thermal resistance
(Rt)
Ts ,1 T
k
x
L
T
L
kA
T
L
k T
r ln r2 r1
r 2 r2 r1
2 Lk T
ln r2 r1
4 r1r2k T
r2 r1
ln r2 r1
L
kA
1 r1 1 r
1
r
1
r
1
2
Ts ,1 T
2 Lk
r1r2k T
r2 r1
4 r1r2k
T Ts ,1 Ts ,2
101
1-D STEADY STATE

CONDUCTION WITH ENERGY
GENERATION
102
Implications of Energy Generation
Involves a local (volumetric) source of thermal energy due to

conversion from another form of energy in a conducting medium.
The source may be uniformly distributed, as in the conversion from
electrical to thermal energy (Ohmic heating):
E&g I 2 Re
q&
V
V
or
It may be non-uniformly distributed, as in the absorption of radiation
passing through a semi-transparent medium. For a plane wall,
q& exp x
Generation causes the heat rate to vary with location. Accordingly, the
concept of thermal resistance/circuit cannot be applied.
103
Plane Wall
Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a
plane wall of constant k, uniform generation, and
asymmetric surface conditions:
Heat Equation:
d dT
k q& 0
dx dx
If k constant
d 2T
q&
0
2
k
dx
q& 2
T x C1 x C2
2k
104
Plane Wall (cont.)

Asymmetric Surface Conditions:
Boundary Conditions (BC):
1 T L Ts,1
2 T L Ts,2
Temperature distribution
Ts ,2 Ts ,1 x Ts ,1 Ts ,2
&2
qL
x 2
T
1 2
2k
2
L
2
L
Profile is parabolic
Heat flux and heat rate are no longer independent of x
105
Plane Wall (cont.)

Symmetric Surface Conditions or One Surface Insulated:
dT
0
dx x 0
2 T L Ts
BC 1 gives C1 0
&2
qL
BC 2 gives C2 Ts
2k
Temperature distribution
&2
qL
x 2
T Ts
1 2
2k
L
Temperature profile is parabolic

The maximum value occurs at the insulated/symmetric surface, x 0
Tmax
&2
qL
T0 Ts
2k
106
Plane Wall (cont.)

Surface Temperature
Apply overall energy balance on the wall
E& E& 0
out
&sL 0
hAs Ts T qA
&
qL
Ts T
h
or
From a surface energy balance:
E& E& 0
in
kAs
dT
dx
out
xL
hAs Ts T 0
& s L hAs Ts T 0
qA
&
qL
Ts T
h
107
Radial Systems
Cylindrical (Tube) Wall
Solid Cylinder (Circular Rod)
Spherical Wall (Shell)
Solid Sphere
Heat Equations:
1D cylindrical, S.S.
1D spherical, S.S.
1 d
dT
kr
q& 0
r dr
dr
1 d 2 dT
kr
q& 0
2
r dr
dr
108
Solid Cylinder
Heat Equation:
1 d
dT
kr q& 0
r dr
dr
If k constant
1 d dT
q&
r 0
r dr dr
k
q&
T r 2 C1 ln r C2
4k
dT
0
dr r 0
2 T ro Ts
109
Solid Cylinder (cont.)

BC 1 gives C1 0
&o2
qr
BC 2 gives C2 Ts
4k
Temperature distribution:
&o2
qr
r 2
T Ts
1 2
4k
ro
The temperature profile is parabolic with r and the maximum

value occurs at the centre, r 0.
Tmax
&o2
qr
Ts
4k
110
Solid Cylinder (cont.)

Surface Temperature
Apply overall energy balance on the solid cylinder
E& E&
out
q& ro2 L h 2 ro L Ts T
Ts T
&o
qr
2h
111
Solid Sphere
Heat Equation:
1 d 2 dT
kr
q& 0
2 dr
dr
r
If k constant
1 d 2 dT
q&
r
2 dr
dr
k
r
& 2 C1
qr
T
C2
6k
r
dT
0
dr r 0
2 T ro Ts
112
Solid Sphere (cont.)

BC 1 gives C1 0
&o 2
qr
BC 2 gives C2 Ts
6k
Temperature distribution:
&o 2
qr
r 2
T Ts
1 2
6k
ro
The temperature profile is parabolic with r and the maximum

value occurs at the centre, r 0.
Tmax
&o 2
qr
Ts
6k
113
Solid Sphere (cont.)

Surface Temperature
Apply overall energy balance on the solid sphere
E& E&
g
out
4
q& ro3 h 4 ro2 Ts T
3
&
qr
Ts T o
3h
114
Application of Resistance Concept

When heat generation effects are present, the heat
transfer rate is not a constant, nor independent of the
spatial coordinate. Consequently, it would be incorrect to
use the conduction resistance concepts.
115
Example 7
A 2-kW resistance water heater is used to boil water in a
kettle. The cylindrical heating element has a diameter of 5
mm and length 0.6 m, where thermal conductivity, k = 15
W/mK. The heater is submerged in water of 100C and
experiences a convective heat transfer coefficient, h =
20,000 W/m2K. Calculate the temperature at the centre of
the element.
116

q&
E&g
Velement
2,000
0.00252 0.6
0.1697 109 W/m3

First determine the outer surface temperature
E& h 2 r L T T
g
2,000 20,000 2 0.0025 0.6 Ts 100

Ts 110.6C
T r 0 Ts
&o2
qr
4k
128.3C
110.6
0.1697 109 0.00252
4 15
117
EXTENDED SURFACE/FIN
118
Extended Surface/Fin
An extended surface (also know as a combined
conduction-convection system or a fin) is a solid within
which heat transfer by conduction is assumed to be one
dimensional, while heat is also transferred by convection
(and/or radiation) from the surface in a direction
transverse to that of conduction.
Extended surfaces may exist in many situations but are
commonly used as fins to enhance heat transfer by
increasing the surface area available for convection
(and/or radiation). They are particularly beneficial when h
is small, as for gas and natural convection.
119
Some Typical Fin Configurations
Straight fins of (a) uniform and (b) non-uniform cross sections;

(c) annular fin, and (d) pin fin of non-uniform cross section.
120
Some Innovative Fin Designs
121
Fin Equation
Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in
an extended surface of constant conductivity with
negligible generation and radiation.
Applying conservation of energy to
the differential element,
qx q x dx dqconv
From Fourier's law
dT
dx
where Ac is the cross-sectional area
qx kAc
which may vary with x.

qx dx
dqx
dT
d
dT
qx
dx kAc
k Ac dx
dx
dx
dx
dx
122
Fin Equation (cont.)

The convection heat transfer
rate may be expressed as
dqconv hdAs T T
where dAs is the surface area of
the differential element.
Substituting into the energy balance
equation,
d
dT
h
Ac dx dAs T T 0
dx
dx
k
123

Fins of Uniform Cross Section
If Ac is a constant and dAs Pdx, fin equation becomes
d 2T
hP
T T 0
2
kAc
dx
Define
hP
2
=T T , m
kAc
Fin equation simplifies to
d 2
dx 2
m 2 0
124

The general solution is
C1e mx C2 e mx
To solve for C1 and C2 , need to specify 2 boundary conditions.
Boundary conditions:
1. Base x 0 condition
0 T0 T 0
2. Tip x L condition depends on the physical situation
Case 1: Long fin, L 0

d
Case 2 : Adiabatic,
dx
Case 3: Convection, k
(insulated tip)
xL
d
dx
xL
125
Fin Equation Long Fin

1 x 0, 0
2 x L , T T 0
BC 2 gives C2 0
BC 1 gives C1 0
Temperature Distribution :
e mx
0
Heat Transfer:
qf
d
hP dx kAc
dx
where m 2
hP
;M
kAc
x 0
kAc m 0 kAc
hP
0
kAc
hPkAc 0 M
hPkAc 0
126
Fin Equation Adiabatic Fin Tip

1 x 0, 0
d
0
dx
2 x L,
cosh m L x
0
cosh mL
Heat Transfer:
q f kAc
d
dx
where m 2
M tanh mL
x 0
hP
;M
kAc
hPkAc 0
127
Fin Equation Convective Fin Tip

1 x 0, 0
d
h
dx
2 x L, k
cosh m L x h mk sinh m L x
0
cosh mL h mk sinh mL
Heat Transfer :
qf M
sinh mL h mk cosh mL
where m 2
hP
;M
kAc
hPkAc 0
128
Fin Efficiency
The ratio of the actual heat transfer rate from the fin to the maximum
rate at which a fin could dissipate energy.
The maximum rate at which a fin could dissipate energy is the rate that
would exist if the entire fin surface were at the base temperature.
qf
q f ,max
qf
hA f 0
<1
where A f is the surface area of the fin.

For the case of Long Fin,
hPkAc 0
h PL 0
1 kAc
L hP
1
mL
129
Fin Efficiency (cont.)

For the case of Adiabatic Fin,
hPkAc 0 tanh mL
h PL 0
1 kAc
tanh mL
L hP
tanh mL
mL
130
Fin Effectiveness
The ratio of the fin heat transfer rate to the heat transfer rate that
would exist without the fin.
f
qf
hAc,00
>1
where Ac,0 is the fin cross-sectional area at the base.

Design criteria: f 2 rule of thumb
Since q f f hA f 0
Af
f f
A
c,0
131
Fin Effectiveness (cont.)

For the case of Long Fin, f
1 kAc
, A f PL, Ac ,0 Ac
L hP
1 kAc PL
f
A
L
hP
c
kP
hAc
In order to get high fin performance

large k material
installation of fins at the lower h side
thin shape
132
Example 8
A copper pin fin 2.5 mm in diameter protrudes from a wall
at 100C into air at 28C. The heat transfer is mainly by
natural convection with a heat transfer coefficient of 12
W/m2K. Calculate heat losses from the fin assuming
i. the fin is infinitely long
ii. the fin is 30 mm long and the tip of the fin is insulated
iii. the fin 30 mm long having convective losses, with h =
12 W/m2K.
133

The fin temperature is a function of length and varies between
100C and 28C. We evaluate thermal conductivity at an average
100 28
temperature of
=64C, k 396 W/m K.
2
2
hPkAc 12 0.0025 396 0.0025
4
0.0135W/K
i Consider the fin infinitely long, L

qM
hPkAc 0 , 0 T0 T 100 28 72K
0.0135 72
0.9745W
134

m
hP
kAc
12 0.0025
2
396 0.0025
4
6.963m 1
mL 6.963 0.03
0.2088
ii The tip of the fin is insulated,
d
dx
0
xL
q M tanh mL
0.9745 tanh 0.2088
0.2005 W
135
h
12
mk 6.963 396
0.00435
iii Convective heat transfer from tip, k

qM
d
dx
sinh mL h mk cosh mL
xL
h L
0.9745
0.205W
sinh 0.2088 0.00435 cosh 0.2088

cosh 0.2088 0.00435 sinh 0.2088
136
Example 9
An array of 10 aluminum alloy fins, each 3 mm wide, 0.4
mm thick, and 40 mm long, is used to cool a transistor.
When the base is at 67C and the ambient is at 27C, how
much power do they dissipate if the combined convection
and radiation heat transfer coefficient is estimated to be 8
W/m2K? The alloy has a thermal conductivity of 175
W/mK. The heat transfer from the tip of the fin is
negligible. Also, find the efficiency and effectiveness of the
fin.
137

For one fin :
Ac 0.003 0.0004
1.2 106 m 2
P 2 0.003 0.0004
6.8 103 m
m
hP
kAc
8.0 6.8 103
175 1.2 106
16.1 m 1
mL 16.1 0.040
0.644
A f PL 6.8 103 0.040 2.72 104 m 2

138

For finite fin negligible tip losses :
tanh mL
f
mL
tanh 0.644
0.644
0.881
Af
f f
Ac,0
2.72 104
0.881
1.2 106
200
139

q f ,max h PL 0 ,
0 67 27 40 K
8 2.72 104 40
0.0870 W
q f f q f ,max
or
q f M tanh mL
0.881 0.0870
0.0764 W
qarray 10 q f
0.764 W
140
TRANSIENT CONDUCTION
141
Introduction
Many heat transfer problems are time dependent.
Changes in operating conditions in a system cause
temperature variation with time, as well as location within a
solid, until a new steady state (thermal equilibrium) is
achieved.
In this section we will develop procedures for determining
the time dependence of the temperature distribution.
Solution techniques include Lumped Capacitance Method,
Exact Solutions and Finite-Difference Method.
We will focus on the Lumped Capacitance Method, which
can be used for solids within which temperature gradients
are negligible.
142
Lumped Capacitance Method
Based on the assumption of a spatially uniform temperature

distribution throughout the transient process.
Hence,
T(x, y, z, t) = T(t) Temperature is a function of time only.
Applying Conservation of Energy

to the control volume
E& E& E& E&
in
out
st
Now
E& 0(no energy inflow)
in
E&g 0(no internal energy generation)

E&out qconv hAs T T
dT
E&st Vc
dt
143
Lumped Capacitance Method (cont.)

Substituting
hAs T T Vc
dT
dt
Introducing =T T
Vc d

hAs dt
Separating variables
hAs
d
dt
Vc
Integrating from the initial condition, t 0, i
d
hAs t
dt
i
0
Vc
hAs
exp
t
i
Vc
exponential decay
144

Thermal Time Constant
Define
1
( Vc) Rt Ct
hAs
where Rt : resistance to convection heat transfer

Ct : lumped thermal capacitance of the solid
hAs
t
exp
t
exp
i

Vc
Rt=1/(hAs)
Ct=Vc
= time constant =
Vc
hAs
The temperature difference between solid and fluid decays exponentially.

When t ,
exp 1 0.368
i
145
146

Time taken to reach a temperature T
t
Vc i
ln
hAs
Heat transfer over a period of time t

t
Q qconv dt hAs dt
t
Q Vc i 1 exp Vc i Est

Now Qmax Vc i
Q
t
1 exp
Qmax

147
Validity of Lumped Capacitance Method

Surface energy balance:
Ts,1
qcond
qcond qconv
qconv
kA
(Ts.1 Ts ,2 ) hA(Ts ,2 T )
L
qcond Rcond L kA hL
Ts ,1 Ts ,2
Tsolid
Bi
Ts ,2 T Tsolid / liquid
k
qconv Rconv 1 hA
What is the relative magnitude of Tsolid vs. Tsolid / liquid
Ts,2
for the lumped capacitance method to be valid?

T
For Bi<<1 Tsolid <<

= Tsolid / liquid : The resistance
to conduction within the solid is much less than the
resistance to convection across the fluid/solid
boundary layer.
148
Validity of Lumped Capacitance Method (cont.)

Biot Number (Bi)
Definition:
Bi
hLc
k
where
h convection or radiation heat transfer coefficient

k thermal conductivity of the solid
Lc characteristic length of the solid (
V
or coordinate
As
associated with maximum spatial temperature difference)

Criterion for Applicability of Lumped Capacitance Method:
Bi 0.1
i.e. approx. uniform temperature in the solid

149
Validity of Lumped Capacitance Method (cont.)
qcond
Ts ,1
qconv
Bi 1 Ts ,2
Bi 1 Ts ,2
Bi 1
Ts ,2
x
T , h
L
150
Biot and Fourier Numbers

Shown previously
hAs
exp
t
i
Vc

t
exp

hAs t hLc t
Now
Bi Fo
2
Vc k Lc
where Fo
t
L2c
Note :
V
k
Lc ;
As
c
is the Fourier number (a dimensionless time).
Fourier number is the ratio of heat conduction rate to the rate of

thermal energy storage in a solid. A large value of Fo indicates
faster propagation of heat through a body.
151
Biot and Fourier Numbers (cont.)
t
exp Bi Fo exp
i

t
Bi.Fo
Transient conduction problems are characterized by the Biot and

the Fourier numbers.
Heat transfer over a period of time t ,
t
Q hAs dt
0
hAsi 1 exp Bi Fo
t
Bi Fo
152
Example 10
Steel ball bearings are required to be subjected to heat
treatment to obtain the desired surface characteristics.
The balls are heated to a temperature of 650C and then
quenched in a pool of oil that has a temperature 55C. The
ball bearings have a diameter of 40 mm. The convective
heat transfer coefficient between the ball bearings and oil
is 300 W/m2K. Determine
a) the length of time that the bearings must remain in the oil
before their temperature drops to 200C,
b) total amount of heat removed from each bearing during this
time interval, and
c) instantaneous heat transfer rate from the bearings when they
are first placed in the oil and when they reach 200C.
The properties of steel ball bearings are as follows:
k = 50 W/mK = k/cp = 1.310-5 m2/s
153

V 4 ro / 3 ro
hLc h ro 3 300 0.020 3
Lc
Bi
As
4 ro2
3
k
k
50
Bi 0.04 0.1 Can apply Lumped Capacitance Method
3
Fo
t
t
L2c ro 3 2
1.3 10 t
0.020 3 2
0.293t
exp Bi Fo
i
200 55
exp 0.04 0.293t
650 55
t 120s
a)
154

b) Q hAsi 1 exp Bi Fo
t
Bi Fo
300 4 ro2 Ti T 1 exp Bi Fo

300 4 0.020
t
Bi Fo
650 55 1 exp 0.04 0.293 120
120
0.04 0.293 120
57.8kJ
Alternatively, use Q Est cV Ti T
155
c) q hAs hAsi exp Bi Fo

at t 0,
q hAsi 300 4 0.020
650 55
897 W
at t 120s,
q hAsi exp Bi Fo 897 exp 0.04 0.293 120
220 W
156
Example 11
The hot plate of a cooker has a surface area of 0.05 m 2
and is made of steel (density 7820 kg/m 3) having a total
mass of 1.4 kg. The convection heat transfer coefficient is
17 W/m2K between the plate and its surroundings at
27C. How long after being switched on, would the plate
take to attain a temperature of 117C? The plate heater is
rated at 500 W and initially at the temperature of the
surroundings. The specific heat of the plate is 461 J/kgK.
157

Apply Conservation of Energy
d
& hAs where T T
Vc
qV
dt
hA
d
q&
a b where a
,b s
dt
c
Vc
Separating the variable and integrating
t
b
0 a b d b0 dt
a b
ln
bt
a
1 a b
1 a
t ln
ln
b
a
b a b
158

Substituting
T T 117 27 90 K
&
q& qV
500
a
0.775
c Vc 1.4 461
hA
17 0.05
b s
1.317 103
Vc 1.4 461
1 a b
1
t ln
ln
3
b
a
1.317 10
126s
0.775 1.317 103 90
0.775
159
Example 12
The temperature of a stream of natural gas flowing
through a pipe at 100C is to be measured by a
thermocouple whose junction can be approximated as a 1mm diameter sphere. The properties of the junction are as
follows: k = 35 W/mK, = 8500 kg/m3 and c = 320 J/kgK.
The convection heat transfer coefficient between the
junction and the gas, h = 210 W/m 2K. The thermocouple
is initially at 28C. Determine the time constant of the
thermocouple. Also, find the time taken to read 99% of the
initial temperature difference.
160

V D 3 6 D 0.001
Lc

2
As
6
6
D
1.667 104 m
hLc 210 1.667 104
Bi
0.001 0.1
k
35
Can apply Lumped Capacitance Method
T T
t
exp
i Ti T

Vc
where
(thermal time constant)
hAs
8500 0.001
6 320
210 0.001
2.16s
161

T T
t
exp
Ti T
2.16
T T
For
0.01
Ti T
0.01 exp
2.16
t 10s
162
General Lumped Capacitance Analysis

In the general case we may have
convection, radiation, internal energy
generation and an applied heat flux. The
overall energy balance becomes:
dT
"
"
qs" As,h E g (qconv
qrad
)As ( c ,r ) Vc
dt
Numerical solutions are generally
required, e.g. Finite Difference method,
Finite Element method
Simplified solutions exist for no imposed
heat flux or generation.
Tsur
E gen , E st
qs
qrad
dT
E&g , Vc
dt
T , h
qconv
As,h
As(c,r)
163
Other transient problems
When the lumped capacitance analysis is not valid (e.g. Bi >>0.1), we

must solve the partial differential equations analytically or numerically.
Exact and approximate solutions may be used.
Tabulated values of coefficients used in the solutions of these
equations are available.
Transient temperature distributions for commonly encountered
problems involving semi-infinite solids can be found in the literature.
164

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National University of Singapore

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ME3122 HEAT TRANSFER

Lecturers & Tutors

Prof Andrew Tay AO

ME3122 Heat Transfer

ME3122 Heat Transfer

Radiation (SG Lee)

Convection (AO Tay)

Hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers

Heat Exchangers (AO Tay)

ME3122 Heat Transfer

Textbook & References

ME3122 Heat Transfer

ME3122 Heat Transfer

Heat transfer tells us

ME3122 Heat Transfer

What is Heat Transfer?

ME3122 Heat Transfer

Thermal Energy Energy associated with

A means of indirectly assessing

Thermal energy transport due to

Amount of thermal energy

Thermal energy transfer per unit

Thermal energy transfer per unit

ME3122 Heat Transfer

Application Areas of Heat Transfer

ME3122 Heat Transfer

Modes of Heat Transfer

Conduction: Heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid (gas

Consider steady conduction through a plane wall of thickness x = L

Note: Thermal conductivity k is a measure

Note: The negative sign is because heat is conducted

ME3122 Heat Transfer

ME3122 Heat Transfer

Convective heat transfer between a surface and a fluid can

h: Convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)

Convective heat transfer coefficients

ME3122 Heat Transfer

For combined convection and radiation,

ME3122 Heat Transfer

Solution for Example 1

Total heat transfer area, A 2 4 3 3 3 4{ 3 54 m 2

ME3122 Heat Transfer

ME3122 Heat Transfer

Solution for Example 2

ME3122 Heat Transfer

Solution for Example 3

Ts =32oC = 305 K, Tsur=27oC = 300 K

q 0.95 5.67 108 1.2 3054 300 4

q 0.95 5.67 108 1.2 3054 2854

Summary of Heat Transfer

ME3122 Heat Transfer

ME3122 Heat Transfer

Solution Outline for Exercise 1.1

Amount of heat lost during 8 hours

ME3122 Heat Transfer

ME3122 Heat Transfer

Solution Outline for Exercise 1.2

ME3122 Heat Transfer

ME3122 Heat Transfer

ME3122 Heat Transfer

ME3122 Heat Transfer