Dr Tanmoy Debnath

tanmoy.debnath@aiub.edu, Office: 6th floor

PhD, Wireless Network Engineering,
Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland
MSc, Hardware for Wireless Communications,
Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden
BSc, Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Bangladesh

Network Theorems (for linear circuits )

Theorems help us to solve so called complicated circuits -i.e. circuits
that are not series / parallel / series parallel.
Superposition Theorem
Thvenins, Nortons Theorems
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Recriprocity, Millmans Theorems

Linear Systems

(Boylestad) The term linear indicates that the characteristics of the

network elements (such as the resistors) are independent of the
voltage across or current through them.
(Alexander, Sadiku) A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly
related (or directly proportional) to its input. Linearity is a
combination of both the homogeneity (scaling) and the additivity
properties. A resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current
relationship satisfies both properties.
The homogeneity property requires that if the input is multiplied by a
constant, then the output is multiplied by the same constant.
For a resistor, If the input current is increased by a constant k, then
the output voltage increases correspondingly by k, that is, k*V = k*iR

Linear Systems-contd.

The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of inputs

is the sum of the responses to each input applied separately.

Using the voltage-current relationship of a resistor, if v1 = i1R and v2 = i2R

then applying (i1 + i2) gives v = (i1 + i2)R = i1R + i2R = v1 + v2

Since P = i2R = v2/R (making it a quadratic function rather than a linear one),
the relationship between power and voltage (or current) is nonlinear.
Therefore, the theorems covered in this chapter are applicable to voltage
and current and not to power.

Bilateral devices

(Boylestad) The term, bilateral, refers to the fact that there is no

change in the behavior or characteristics of an element if the current
through or voltage across the element is reversed.

Source transformations

Superposition Theorem
The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through)
an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or
currents through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.
(Alexander, Sadiku)
1. Consider one source at a time
2. Kill all other sources Open circuit the current source(s)
Short circuit the voltage source(s)
3. Calculate the resulting current/ voltage
4. Add (or subtract) all the resulting currents/voltages keeping the polarity in
mind (be careful!)

Thevenins and Nortons Theorems

Lon Charles Thvenin

(1857 1926, France)

Edward Lawry Norton

(1898 1983, USA)

Thevenins Theorem
It replaces a complex two-terminal linear circuit to a simpler one
which consists of an equivalent voltage source in series connection
with an equivalent resistance.

VTH = Thvenin voltage

RTH = Thvenin resistance

How to obtain the equivalent circuit?

1.

Identify and isolate the circuit and terminals for which the Thvenin
equivalent circuit is required

2.

RTH: Kill the independent sources and determine the equivalent

resistance of the circuit as seen by the load resistance.
- voltage sources should be short-circuited (just remove them and
replace with plain wire)
- current sources should be open-circuited (just removed)
VTH: Re-activate the sources and determine the open-circuit
voltage VTH across the circuit terminals (by using KCL, KVL, CDR,
VDR, Mesh analysis, Nodal analysis, superposition theorem)

Practical things to remember

RTH = Equivalent resistance seen by the load RL

For open circuit: current through that branch is zero but there is voltage
present
For short circuit: current through that is finite and but voltage across that
element is zero
Calculate VTH or ETH with caution
If possible, convert (voltage/current) sources to make the circuit simpler
If asked to calculate power, use the following equation:

Nortons Theorem
It replaces a complex two-terminal linear circuit to a simpler one
which consists of an equivalent current source in parallel
connection with an equivalent resistance.

IN = Norton short circuit current

RN = Equivalent Norton resistance
(Figure courtesy: Alexander, Sadiku)

How to obtain the equivalent circuit?

1.

Identify and isolate the circuit and terminals for which the Norton
equivalent circuit is required

2.

RN:(RN = RTH) Kill the independent sources and determine the

equivalent resistance of the circuit as seen by the load resistance.
- voltage sources should be short-circuited (just remove them and
replace with plain wire)
- current sources should be open-circuited (just removed)
IN: (Isc = IN) Re-activate all the sources and determine the shortcircuit current through the circuit terminals (by using KCL, KVL,
CDR, VDR, Mesh analysis, Nodal analysis, superposition theorem)

If we have Thevenin equivalent circuit of a network it is possible to

obtain the Norton equivalent by using source transformation.

RTH

A
Any circuit
made up of
resistors and
sources

~v
B

+
TH

~i

Copyright: Dr Dave Shattuck, University of Houston, USA

RN
B

Practical things to remember

The Norton resistance RN is the equivalent resistance Req of the

circuit. It is calculated after all sources are deactivated. This is
same as RTH. i.e., RTH = RN = Req

The current source is the current obtained

by shorting the output of the network,
i.e. it is equal to the short-circuit current
for the two-terminal circuit after replacing
the load resistance with a wire:
Isc = IN = VTH / RTH

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Maximum power transfer to a load occurs when the load resistance
(RL) matches the Thevenins resistance (RTH) of a given system, i.e.,
RL = RTH = RN
Load voltage: VL VTH RL
RL RTH

Delivered max power to the load:

2
L

2
2
V
RL
V
I
RN
TH
N

PL

RL RL RL RTH
4RTH
4
2
VTH

DC operating efficiency under maximum power transfer condition is 50%

(Power delivered to the load / Power delivered by the source)

(Summary
Courtesy:
Alexander,
Sadiku)