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2 Digital Transmission
Outlines
Contd...
Because voice data limited to frequencies
below 4000 Hz, a codec makes 8000
samples/sec. (i.e., 125
microsecond/sample).
If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at
a rate higher than twice the highest signal
frequency, the samples contain all the
information of the original signal.
4 Steps Process
Contd
Analog signal is sampled.
Converted to discrete-time continuous-amplitude signal
(Pulse Amplitude Modulation)
Pulses are quantized and assigned a digital value.
A 7-bit sample allows 128 quantizing levels.
PCM uses non-linear encoding, i.e., amplitude spacing of levels is
non-linear
There is a greater number of quantizing steps for low amplitude
This reduces overall signal distortion.
This introduces quantizing error (or noise).
PCM pulses are then encoded into a digital bit stream.
8000 samples/sec x 7 bits/sample = 56 Kbps for a single voice
channel.
PCM Example
Quantization
A process of converting an infinite number of possibilities to
a finite number of conditions (rounding off the amplitudes
of flat-top samples to a manageable number of levels).
Contd...
Analog input
signal
Sample pulse
PAM signal
PCM code
Contd
The quantization interval @ quantum
= the magnitude difference between adjacent steps.
The resolution = the magnitude of a quantum
= the voltage of the minimum step size.
The quantization error = the quantization noise
= quantum
= (orig. sample voltage quantize
level)
PCM code = (sample voltage/resolution)
QUANTIZATION ERROR
A difference between the exact value of the
analog signal & the nearest quantization level.
Types of Quantization
Midtread
Midrise
Types of Quantizer
1. Uniform type : The levels of the quantized amplitude are uniformly spaced.
2. Non-uniform type : The levels are not uniform.
Vmax
Vmax
DR
Vmin resolution
DR 2 n 1
DR(dB) 20 log( DR)
Where
DR = absolute value of dynamic range
Vmax = the maximum voltage magnitude
Vmin = the quantum value (resolution)
n = number of bits in the PCM code
Example 1
1. Calculate the dynamic range for a
linear PCM system using 16-bit
quantizing.
2. Calculate the number of bits in PCM
code if the DR = 192.6 dB
Coding Efficiency
A numerical indication of how
efficiently a PCM code is utilized.
The ratio of the minimum number of
bits required to achieve a certain
dynamic range to the actual number
of PCM bits used.
Coding Efficiency = Minimum number of bits x 100
Actual number of bits
SQR(min)
R =resistance
(ohm)
resolution
Qe
SQR(max)
Vmax
Qe
v = rms signal
voltage
q = quantization
interval
10 log
v2
v2
10 log
12 )
q2
12
Example 2
1.
2.
Nonlinear Encoding
Quantization levels not evenly spaced
Reduces overall signal distortion
Can also be done by companding
Companding
The process of compressing and then expanding.
The higher amplitude analog signals are compressed
prior to transmission and then expanded in receiver.
Improving the DR of a communication system.
Companding Functions
Method of Companding
For the compression, two laws are adopted: the -law in
US and Japan and the A-law in Europe.
-law
Vout
ln(1 )
A-law
Vout
Vmax
A Vin Vmax
1 ln A
Vin
1
ln(
A
Vmax )
1 ln A
Vin
1
0
Vout A
1 Vin
1
A Vout
Example 3
A companding system with = 255
used to compand from 0V to 15 V
sinusoid signal. Draw the
characteristic of the typical system.
Draw an 8 level non-uniform
quantizer characteristic that
corresponds to the mentioned .
Contd...
-law
A-law
samples
bits
line speed
X
second sample
Where
Line speed = the transmission rate in bits per second
Sample/second = sample rate, fs
Bits/sample = no of bits in the compressed PCM code
Example 4
For a single PCM system with a
sample rate fs = 6000 samples per
second and a 7 bits compressed PCM
code, calculate the line speed.
Contd
Secure communication through the use of
special modulation schemes of encryption.
These advantages are obtained at the cost of
more complexity and increased BT.
With cost-effective implementations, the cost
issue no longer a problem of concern.
With the availability of wide-band
communication channels and the use of
sophisticated data compression techniques, the
large bandwidth is not a serious problem.
Time-Division Multiplexing
This technique combines time-domain
samples from different message signals
(sampled at the same rate) and transmits
them together across the same channel.
The multiplexing is performed using a
commutator (switch). At the receiver a
decommutator (switch) is used in
synchronism with the commutator to
demultiplex the data.
Contd
TDM system is very sensitive to symbol
dispersion, that is, to variation of amplitude with
frequency or lack of proportionality of phase with
frequency. This problem may be solved through
equalization of both magnitude and phase.
One of the methods used to synchronize the
operations of multiplexing and demultiplexing is
to organize the multiplexed stream of data as
frames with a special pattern. The pattern is
known to the receiver and can be detected very
easily.