THE

SKELETAL
SYSTEM
Lecture III

WHAT IS THE SKELETAL SYSTEM?

In

biology, the
skeletal system is
the biological
system that
provides support
in living
organisms.

TYPES OF SKELETAL SYSTEMS

There are three different types of skeletal systems:

Exoskeleton- A hard encasement deposited on the surface of an animal.

Endoskeleton- Consists of hard supporting elements, such as bones, buried within
the soft tissues of an animal.
Hydrostatic Skeleton- Consists of fluid held under pressure in a closed body
compartment.

HYDROSTATIC SKELETON
o

Hydrostatic skeletons are similar to a water-filled

balloon.

Located internally in cnidarians, (coral, jellyfish etc.)

and annelids (leeches, earthworms etc.), among
others, these animals can move by contracting the
muscles surrounding the fluid-filled pouch, creating
pressure within the pouch that causes movement.

Animals such as earthworms use their hydrostatic

skeletons to change their body shape, as they move
forward, from long and thin to shorter and wider.

HYDROSTATIC SKELETON

Not all skeletons are rigid;

many invertebrate groups use
their body fluids as an internal
hydrostatic skeleton. Muscles
in the body wall of the
earthworm, for example, have
no firm base for attachment
but develop muscular force by
contracting against the
coelomic fluids, which are
enclosed within a limited
space and are incompressible,
much like the hydraulic brake
system of an automobile.

Chaetae get lifted in regions of circular muscle

contraction.
During longitudinal muscles contraction, chaetae
anchor into the ground

HYDROSTATIC SKELETON

Locomotion in aquatic
invertebrates occurs by
fluid ejections or jetting
-Jellyfish produce regular
pulsations in bell
-Squeezing some of water
contained beneath it

-Squids fill mantle cavity

with sea water
-Muscular contractions expel
water forcefully through the
siphon, and the animal
shoots backward

EXOSKELETON
Some animals with exoskeletons:
arthropods, such as insects, spiders and
crustaceans
other invertebrate animals, such as shelled
mollusks
* The exoskeletons of mollusks contain
calcium carbonate. As the mollusk grows,
the shell enlarges as well.
* Jointed appendages are also present in
organisms with an exoskeleton.

MOLTING

ENDOSKELETON
o

The endoskeleton, also known as an internal

skeletal system, consists of rigid (or semi
rigid) structures, within the body. These
structures are capable of being moved by the
muscular system which surrounds it.
If the skeletal structures are mineralized or
ossified, as they are in humans and other
mammals, they are referred to as bones.
Cartilage is referred to as another common
component of skeletal systems, supporting
and supplementing the skeleton. Though less
ridged, they are more flexible in comparison
to the ossified bone, allowing for
manipulation in shape to enable bending.
For example, the human ear, nose, and ribs
all consist of cartilage.

ENDOSKELETON

Bone

is never formed in vacant

space but is always laid down by
replacement in areas occupied by
some form of connective tissue. Most
bone develops from cartilage and is
called endochondral (within
cartilage) or replacement bone.

Cancellous

(or spongy) bone

consists of an open, interlacing
framework of bony tissue, oriented
to give maximum strength under
the normal stresses and strains that
the bone receives. All bone develops
first as cancellous bone, but some
bones, through further deposition of
bone salts, become compact.

MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF
BONE

Compact bone is composed of a

calcified bone matrix arranged in
concentric rings.
The rings contain cavities
(lacunae) filled with bone cells
(osteocytes), which are
interconnected by many minute
passages (canaliculi).
These passages serve to distribute
nutrients throughout thebone. This
entire organization of lacunaeand
canaliculi is arranged into an
elongated cylinder called an osteon
(also called haversian system)

MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF
BONE

Bone consists of bundles of

osteons cemented together and
interconnected with blood
vessels and nerves.
Because of blood vessels and
nerves throughout bone, it is
living tissue, although nonliving
ground substance
predominates.
As a result of its living state,
bone breaks can heal, and bone
diseases can be as painful as any
other tissue disease.

PLAN OFF THE VERTEBRATE

SKELETON

The vertebrate skeleton is composed of two main

divisions:
Axial skeleton, which includes skull, vertebral
column, sternum, and ribs,
Appendicular skeleton, which includes the
limbs (or fins or wings) and pectoral and pelvic
girdles

AXIAL SKELETON

SKULL
Amphibians and lizards have 50 to 95, and
mammals, 35 or fewer. Humans have 29.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
The vertebral column is the main stiffening axis
of the postcranial skeleton. In fishes it serves
much the same function as the notochord from
which it is derived; that is, it provides points for
muscle attachment and prevents telescoping of
the body during muscle contraction.

AXIAL SKELETON

VERTEBRAL COLUMN
In amniote tetrapods (reptiles, birds, and mammals), the
vertebrae are differentiated into cervical (neck), thoracic
(chest), lumbar (back), sacral (pelvic), and caudal (tail)
vertebrae.
In birds and also in humans the caudal vertebrae are reduced
in number and size, and the sacral vertebrae are fused.
The number of vertebrae varies among the different
vertebrates. Pythons seems to lead the list with more than
400. In humans (Figure 31-9) there are 33 in a young child,
but in adults 5 are fused to form the sacrum and 4 to form
the coccyx.

AXIAL SKELETON

RIBS
Ribs are long or short skeletal structures that articulate medially with
vertebrae and extend into the body wall.
Fishes have a pair of ribs for every vertebra they serve as stiffening
elements in the connective tissue septa that separate the muscle
segments and thus improve the effectiveness of muscle contractions.

AXIAL SKELETON

RIBS
Mammals such as sloths have 24 pairs of ribs, whereas
horses posses 18 pairs. Primates other than humans
have 13 pairs of ribs; humans have 12 pairs, although
approximately 1 person in 20 has a thirteenth pair.

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

APPENDAGES
Most vertebrates, fishes included, have paired
appendages. All fishes except agnathans have thin
pectoral and pelvic fins that are supported by the
pectoral and pelvic girdles, respectively

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

APPENDAGES
In nearly all tetrapods the pelvic girdle is firmly attached to the
axial skeleton, since the greatest locomotory forces transmitted to
the body come from the hindlimbs. The pectoral girdle, however,
is much more loosely attached to the axial skeleton, providing the
forelimbs with greater freedom for manipulative movements.

The skeleton system of mammals is broadly

divided functionally into Axial and Appendicular
portions

The axial skeleton consists of

braincase(cranium),backbone and ribs
The limbs and their girdles constitute the
appendicular skeleton
In addition to these two, visceral elements such
as jaw, auditory ossicles of the middle ear
constitute visceral skeletal system

SKELETAL SYSTEM OF MAN

In man ,the bones are named based on the

position
In human body,there are 206 bones

Axial skeleton-80 bones

Appendicular skeleton-126 bones

SKULL
It protects the brain and provided support for organs of
vision,hearing,smell and taste
The lower jaw or mandible remains specially attached
to the skull

SKULL

The bones in our skull are joined my sutures to form a

complex box like structure.
The sutures are immovable.
The major bones in frontal view includes frontal bone,
zygomatic bone, mandible
The openings in the skull include orbits(for the eyes)and
the nasal cavity
A large opening present in the base of the skull is the
foramen magnum. Through this opening,medulla
oblangata descends as the spinal cord

VERTEBRAL COLUMN
The vertebraes makes up a slightly S shaped vertebral
column.
The vertebral column contains 26 bones,which includes
cervical(7), thoracic(12), lumbar(5) ,sacral(1),
coccygeal(1)

RIB CAGE
There

are 12 pairs of ribs.

First

7 pairs are directly

articulated with the
sternum.hence they are
TRUE RIBS

8,9,10

th pairs are fused and

are attached to sternum.hence
they are known as FALSE
RIBS

11th,12th

pairs are not attached

to sternum.hence they are
known as FLOATING RIBS

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Pectoral girdle:both of our hands are attached

to it loosely by muscles to the body, this
arrangement facilates wide range of movement of
our hand.

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Pelvic girdle:Also known as the pelvis, is formed by

the sacrum and paired bones known as coxae or hip
bones, the pelvic girdle contains the acetabulum which
is meant for the articulation of our lower limb.

UPPER LIMB:the part of the hand from shoulder to

elbow is the arm.it contains one long bones known as
the HUMERUS
FOREARM:this is the part inbetween the arm and
the wrist, the forearm has two important bones, they
are RADIUS,ULNA.

RADIUS AND ULNA

Radius:the radius is present on the lateral or thumb

side of the forearm
Ulna:ulna is present on the side of the little finger

WRIST AND HAND

Wrist:this region is composed of 8 carpel bones.on the
anterior surface carpal tunnel is present through which
tendons,blood vessels passes to the hand.
Hand:there are five metacarpels.each digit other than
the thumb contains three phalanges while the thumb
contains only two phalanges.

LOWER LIMBS
Femur:the upper region of leg which is the thigh
contains a single largest bone known as the Femur
Knee:contains a large,flat bone called as patella which
is articulated with the femur

LEG,ANKLE,FOOT

Leg:lower limb between knee and ankle.it consists of

two bones namely Tibia and Fibula. Tibia is larger and
supports most of the weight of leg

ADVANTAGES OF THE HUMAN

SKELETAL SYSTEM

The design of the skeleton accounts for the

demand for support based on the size of the body
The different types of joints allow for a wide
range of motion
The human skeleton provide the body with a
support system as well as flexibility and
locomotion

SOME INTERESTING FACTS

Smallest

bone-stapes(1.14mm)
Largest bone-thigh bone(26.74% of
length)
Vermes-soft bodied.organisms that lack
skeleton.
Teeth-teeth are first included under
skeletal system but since they are
functional part in digestive system they
are included under digestive system

BONE MARROW

It is an flexible tissue present interior to the bones.

In humans RBC are produced by the heads of long
bones by a process known as HAEMATOPOIESIS
On average bone marrow constitutes abt 4% of the
total body weight in humans.in an adult weighing 65
kg the weight of the marrow is nearly 2.6kg
Bone marrow is also a key to lymphatic
system,producing lymphocytes-immunity

FUNCTIONS OF BONES

MINERAL STORAGE:bones act as a reserve for

minerals,specifically calcium,phospate

Protection:protect internal organs

Shape:provides a frame to support body

Acid base balance:bone buffers the blood against

excessive ph changes by absorbing or releasing alkaline
salts
Detoxyfication:bone tissues can remove heavy metals
and other foreign substances from the blood and store
them reducing their effects on other tissues.these
substances are later excreted