3D Woven Structures and Applications

B K Behera
Department of Textile Technology
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi

Agenda
3 D Construction
Classification
Manufacturing
Potential Advantage
Applications
Challenges
Motivation
Future Scope

Dimension Convention in Textiles

One Dimension
Fibre & Yarn
Two Dimension
Fabric
Three Dimension
- Garment

Dimension Definitions in Fabrics

2D fabric

: Constituent yarns are

disposed in one plane

2.5D fabric : Constituent yarns are

disposed in a two
mutually perpendicular
planes
3D fabric

: Constituent yarns are disposed

in a three mutually
perpendicular planes

3-D Woven Construction

Y

A single-fabric system, the constituent yarns

of which are supposedly disposed in a three
mutually perpendicular plane relationship

2 D Structure
Yarns

laid in a plane

Thickness
Single

is small

layer design

Plain,

Twill, Satin etc..

Used

in laminating

Drawbacks of 2D structure
Anisotropic
Poor in-plane shear
resistance
Less modulus than the
fibre material due to
presence of crimp

Tri-axial Weaving
Three

yarn systems interlaced at 60

OS and OZ warp thread
W is weft thread
H is width
S is height

Multiaxial Weaving
Dimension stable in any
direction
Isotropic distribution of
stress forces
Uniform strain behaviour

3D Weaving
Yarns are arranged
perpendicular to each other
in X, Y and Z directions
No interlacing or crimp
exists between yarns
Fiber volume fraction is
between 45 and 55 percent

Agenda
3 D Construction
Classification
Manufacturing
Potential Advantages
Applications
Challenges
Motivation
Future Scope

Classification of 3D
fabrics
I) Based on type of 3D Structures

3D Solid:
Multilayer
Orthogonal
Angle interlock

3D Hollow:
Flat surface
Uneven surface

3D Shell:
By weave combination
By differential take-up
By moulding

3D Nodal

II) Based on type of process

3D Woven
3D Knitted
3D Nonwoven
3D Jacquard design
Braided structure
III) Based on type of weaving
process
2D weaving 3D fabrics
3D weaving 3D fabrics
NOOBING

NOOBING
The method of producing 3D fabric by Noninterlacing, Orientating Orthogonally the
three sets of yarns, and integrating the
structure through Binding , XYZ weaving,
zero crimp weaving

3D woven sandwich fabrics

Connected by orthogonal
threads resulting in a textile
ssandwich preform
Production of 3-D fabric is
based on velvet weaving
technology
Velvet is produced by cutting
the connecting threads between

High damage tolerance

Extremely high
delamination resistance
Consists of two layers ; the two
Able to contain functional fabric layers of a 3-D fabric
foams
High and well-distributed
energy absorption

3D Solid structures
Multi-layer

Multi-layer structures are distinguished by the

individual layers
Each layer may be of different weave
Stitching of layers
Structure ranges from 2 to 4 layers

3D Solid structures
Orthogonal

It is characterized by straight yarns or yarns

sections in warp, weft and thickness directions
This structure can provide a greater volume
fraction than angle interlock structures

Angle Interlock Fabrics

It is a multilayer fabric
Used for flat panel
reinforcement
Normally woven on a
shuttle loom
Warp yarns taken directly
from a creel

Structural Maneuverability

3D hybrid fabric

Uses

high performance
fiber in a preferential
direction to achieve
desired property
Y Yarn

Z
Yarn

Differen
t from
X and Y

X Yarn

Special 3-D structures

3-D hollow structure

3-D shell structure
3-D nodal structure

3D Hollow structures

3D Shell by uneven take-up

3D Shell by mould

Nodal Structure

Agenda
3 D Construction
Classification
Manufacturing
Potential Advantage
Applications
Challenges
Motivation
Future Scope

3D by Stitching Operation

Limitations
Dimensional stability, conformability and mold ability
To withstand multi-directional mechanical
Required interlaminar strength and damage tolerance

3D fabric on 2D Weaving System

Multilayer structure weaving

True 3D Weaving

TRUE 3 D WEAVING PRINCIPLE

Dual-directional shedding operation

True 3D Woven Fabric

Warp

in Z direction and
Two mutually perpendicular weft
in X & Y

Orthogonal view

Agenda
3 D Construction
Classification
Manufacturing
Potential Advantage
Applications
Challenges
Motivation
Future Scope

Limitations of 2D Fabric

Structural Advantage of 3D
Apart from substantial
thickness (3D) the fabric
has a yarn in z direction
A single-fabric system
and an integrated
structure

Characteristics Advantage
Dimensional stability
Conformability
Mold ability
Withstand multi-directional mechanical stress
Interlaminar strength and damage tolerance

Cost Advantage
Composite Manufacturing is
comparatively cheaper
Quick, easy and cost-effective highperformance solutions

Performance Advantage
Delamination resistance
Compression resistance
Impact resistance
Long life

Application Advantage
Customised Profile structures
Wide range of cross-sectional dimensions
Load-bearing structures can be made

L Profiles

Pi profile

T Profiles

U Profile

Assembly of profiles

Can be used in Modular construction

Agenda
3 D Construction
Classification
Manufacturing
Potential Advantage
Applications
Challenges
Motivation
Future Scope

Applications of 3D fabrics
The main current applications of 3D woven
fabrics are in :
Composites made from textile preforms
Protective clothing

Composites made from textile preforms

Automobiles
Aerospace
Marine

applications
Civil engineering
Machine components
Sporting Goods
Structural Engineering
Wind Energy

Automobile applications

In last 30 years total material in air

craft (on weight basis) has gone up
from 15% to 75%

Space programs

Marine applications

Civil Engineering

Machine Components

Sheet of carbon fibre

prepreg

Large

Aerospace parts
Vacuum-bagged part for oven

Structural Engineering

Products &
Equipment

Pipes

Pressure vessel8 m dia. Chimney stack

Lathe
Racetrack
Whirling-Arm

Sporting Goods
Sporting
Goods

Wind Energy

Wind energy currently contributes 1.5 %

of world energy need. Growth by 2020
to 21-30%.

Protective Clothing
Body armours
Ballistic Protection
Cut resistance fabric
Bullet proof shoes

Ballistic Proof Clothing

57

Upper Arm Ballistic Protection

Ballistic helmet

Bullet proof shoes

Anti-riot Shield.

Agenda
3 D Construction
Classification
Manufacturing
Potential Advantage
Applications
Challenges
Motivation
Future Scope

Challenges
3D Weaving Machine
Weave Architecture
Modeling of 3D structures
Design and Manufacturing of 3D
-composites
Product Development

Primitive 3D Weaving Machine

3D Weaving Machine at NCSU

Greenwoods patent : USP 3 818 951

Khokars patent : SE 509 944

Japans patent
TOYOTA developed a 3D weaving
concept in a research project funded
by METI
Commercial machine yet to come

Multi weft insertion 3D weaving: under

development at Manchester(UMIST)

3D weaving in IIT Delhi

Challenges
3D Weaving Machine
Weave Architecture
Modeling of 3D structures
Design and Manufacturing of 3D
composites
Product Development

Profiled cross section

3D Spacer structures

CAD for 3D fabrics

Profiled Preforms

Challenges
3D Weaving Machine
Weave Architecture
Modeling of 3D structures
Design and Manufacturing of 3D
composites
Product Development

Geometrical Modeling
of
3D Woven fabric
Modeling for tow cross section
(Phase I)
Modeling for fabric construction
parameters
(Phase II)

Modeling of Solid Structures

Only Solid Structures are considered

Unidirectional
2D woven laminar
3D Orthogonal
3D Angle Interlock
3D Multilayer

Unidirectional Fabric (UD)

2 D Fabric Structure

3D Orthogonal Structure

3D Angle Interlock Structure

3D Multilayer Structure

Key fabric parameters for

Geometrical Modeling
No.of thread layers
Thread density
Cross sectional geometry, i.e. aspect ratio
Fabric areal density
Fabric thickness
Fiber volume fraction in fabric

Analysis Principle
An analytical method for calculating
the geometric description of the fabric
unit cell based on the summation of
volumes of tows in the three principal
directions is considered.

Unit Cell in 3D structure

The

unit cell represents the smallest repeat unit

of the weave architecture.
The unit cell describes the whole reinforcing
fabric.
It is generally accepted that the predicted
behavior of the unit cell is representative of the
3D fabric as a whole.

Variability in the Model

This

model enables to play with tow linear

density, thread density, number of tow

layers, binding structure, packing factor of
tows, and aspect ratio for predicting areal
density, thickness and volume fraction, of
the preform fabric even before
manufacturing it.

actually

MODEL - PHASE I
TOW CROSS SECTION MODELING

Importance of tow cross-section

Cross-sectional shape significantly
influence the geometrical characteristics
Tow cross section profile depends on both
spinning and post spinning processes

Tow cross sections

circular

racetrack

elliptical

Tow cross sections in unit cell

racetrac
k

circular

elliptical

Assumptions for the model

No

waviness exists in the threads

Threads

have same size and shape in warp, weft

and thickness directions

The

cross-sectional shape and aspect ratio of the

warp stuffers, weft fillers and warp binder threads

are taken as
circular - (A.R.=1)
racetrack - (A.R.=3)
elliptical - (A.R.=11)

Input parameters in the model

Model data are basic weaving and
material data
Tow linear density
Thread density
Number of layers
Binding structure
Packing factor of tows
Cross sectional geometry, i.e. aspect ratio

Out put parameters in

computation
Computation predicts
Fabric areal density
Fabric thickness
Fiber volume fraction in fabric
Leads to subsequent Mechanical Analysis

Side and Top view of UNIT CELL

Side

view

- No. of layers
- Thickness
- Binder path

Top view
-Face layer of the reinforcement that
gives information on no. of repeats in
the structure

Orthogonal Elliptical Structure

Side
view

Top View

Orthogonal RACETRACK Structure

Side
view

Top View

Orthogonal CIRCULAR Structure

Top View
Side
view
These
views fully describe the pattern
Provide information required for calculating the
geometrical properties of the unit cell

Angle Interlock
Structure

Ellipsoidal

Racetrack

(a) Side view

Circular

(b) Top view

Manufacturer - specified parameters

s,

f , b Linear density of the stuffer,

filler and binder tows (kg/m).
Density of stuffer, filler and
binder tows (kg/m3).

Weaver-specified parameters
nucs

Number of stuffers along the weft

direction (Y) in the unit cell

nucf

Number of fillers along the warp

direction (X) in the unit cell

nucb

Number of binders along the weft

direction (Y ) in the unit cell.

Weaver - specified parameters

s,

f , b

Number of stuffers, fillers and

binders per unit length perpendicular
to tow direction (s/m, f/m and b/m).

ns,

nf , nb

Number of stuffer, filler and binder

layers in the unit cell.

ARs, ARf

, Arb Aspect ratio of stuffer, filler and

binder tows.

Calculated parameters
hs,

H
ls,

hf , hb

Thickness of stuffer, filler

and binder tows (m).

Thickness of unit cell (m).

lf , lb

Ls,

Length of one stuffer, filler

and binder tow in the unit cell (m)

Lf , Lb Total length of stuffer, filler and

tows in the unit cell (m).

binder

Contd..
Vs,

Vf , Vb Total volume of stuffer, filler and

binder tows in the unit cell (m 3).

Lx,

Ly

Muc
Suc
FVF

Length of unit cell in the X and Y

directions (m).
Mass of the unit cell (kg).
Areal density of unit cell (kg/m 2).
Fiber Volume Fraction of unit cell.

Computation of Parameters

Thickness

of Tow
hi = 2(i / ARPf )1/2 (i = s, f , b).

Thickness

of the consolidated unit cell

H = nshs + nfhf +2hb

Computation of Parameters
Length of one layer of stuffer, filler and binder tows
ls =nucf /f
lf =nucs /s
lb = nucf (hf ARf)+2H
(For orthogonal structure)
lb =2[hf ARf +{( ls/2)2+H2}1/2]
(For angle interlock structure)

Computation of Parameters
Total

lengths of individual stuffer, filler and binder

tows
Li = lininuci (i = s, f, b)

Unit Cell
The cross-sectional area (Ai ) of each tow
Ai = (i/Pf )

10

Computation of Parameters
The

total volume of
each tow is
Vi = LiAi , i = s, f, b

The

mass of the unit cell Muc

can be calculated by the aggregation
of all the linear masses
Muc = Lii ,

i=s,f ,b

Computation of Parameters
The

areal density can be calculated as

Suc =Muc/LxLy

The

overall FVF can be

calculated as
FVF = (Vs+Vf+Vb) Pf / LXLYH

Computation of parameters
Computation

platform- MATLAB R 2007 b

Computation

parameters
-Thickness
-Areal density
-Fiber volume fraction

Unit Cell of Orthogonal structure

(Generated in SOLIDWORKS and imported
to ANSYS)

Side view

Isometric view
Front view

Unit Cell of Angle Interlock structure

(Generated in SOLIDWORKS and
imported to ANSYS)

Side view

Isometric view
Front view

Unit Cell of Multilayer structure

(Generated in SOLIDWORKS and
imported to ANSYS)

Side view

Isometric view

Front view

Unit Cell of 2D structure

(Generated in SOLIDWORKS and
imported to ANSYS)

Side view

Isometric view

Front view

Fabric parameters
Weaver and Manufacture specified parameters used to
calculate model parameters
For

orthogonal structure
s f
b n s n f nb
s f b
256 315 256 3 4 2
0.6X10-3
For

Pf

AR
/4 11

angle interlock structure

s f
b
n s n f nb s f b Pf
AR
197 315 197 3 4 5 0.6X10-3
/4 11

Comparison of theoretical and

experimental results (Orthogonal)
2

Areal density(kg./sq.mt.)

Fabric Thickness(mm)

0.3

1
1.5

Calculated

Calculated
Measured

Fiber Volume Fraction

0.4

1.5

1.75

0.5

Calculated
Measured

Measured

Comparison of theoretical and

experimental results
(Angle interlock)

Areal density(kg/sq. mt)

2

Fiber Volume Fraction

Fabric Thickness(mm)
2

0.4

1.5

1.5

1
1

0.3

CONCLUSION
Calculated

values are in good agreement

with measured values

Measured

values of fibre volume fraction in

all three cases are slightly higher than
calculated values, mainly due to the
assumption considered in the model for
stuffer and filler yarn as crimp less , which
is not true

PREDICTION IN MATLAB
PREDICTION
OF
FABRIC
THICKNESS, AREAL DENSITY
AND FIBER VOLUME FRACTION
FOR TWO 3D STRUCTURES IN
THREE DIFFERENT TOW CROSS
SECTION

Flow Chart - Orthogonal

Flow Chart - Angle Interlock

Prediction for Orthogonal Structure with

elliptical cross section

Effect of stuffers/m on Fiber volume fraction , Areal density

Effect of number of stuffer layers on Fiber volume fraction,

areal density, and fabric thickness

Prediction for Orthogonal Structure with

race track cross section

Effect of stuffers/m on Fiber volume fraction, Effect of

stuffers / m on Areal density

Effect of number of stuffer layers on Fiber volume fraction, Areal

density, and Fabric thickness

Prediction for Orthogonal Structure with circular

cross section

Effect of stuffers / m on Fiber volume fraction, Areal density

Effect of number of stuffer layers on Fiber volume fraction, areal density,

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
orthogonal
Stuffer yarn

quantity has direct bearing with

fabric areal density and Fiber volume fraction

No.

of stuffer yarn layers has very little effect

on on Fiber volume fraction

Prediction for Angle Interlock Structure with elliptical cross section

Effect of stuffers/m on fiber volume fraction, Areal density

Effect of no. of stuffer layers on fiber volume fraction., Areal density, Fabric thickness

Prediction for Angle interlock Structure

with race track cross section

Effect of stuffers/m on fiber volume fraction, Areal

density.

Effect of no. of stuffer layers on fiber volume fraction, Areal density, Fabric
thickness

Prediction for Angle Interlock Structure with

circular cross section

Effect of stuffers/m on fiber volume fraction, Areal density

Effect of no. of stuffer layers on fiber volume fraction, Areal density, Fabric thickness

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Angle interlock
Stuffer yarn

quantity has direct bearing

with fabric areal density and Fiber volume
fraction

No.

of stuffer yarn layers have obvious

effect on fabric thickness

No.

of stuffer yarn layers has little effect

on Fiber volume fraction

MODELING PHASE -II

MODELING OF
FABRIC CONSTRUCTION
PARAMETERS

Modelling of Fabric Geometry w.r.t.

Construction Parameters
Model data are basic weaving and material
data
Thread linear density
Thread density
Number of thread layers
Binding structure
Packing factor of threads
Cross sectional geometry,i.e. aspect
ratio

3D Solid
Structures

Unidirectional

2D woven laminar
3D Orthogonal
3D Angle Interlock
3D Multilayer

Input & Output parameters

Input to the model
4 levels of tow linear density
4 levels of tow layer
4 Levels of number of tows/ meter
Output of the model
Fiber volume fraction
Thickness
Areal density

Modeling Details
Computation

plat form MATLAB R 2007 b

Parameter

notations are similar to that of cross

section modeling discussed already

The

out put of tow cross section model is used in

fabric geometry modeling

Geometrical

relations developed in the previous

model also hold good

Computation of Parameters
Total

lengths of individual stuffer, filler and binder tows

Li = lininuci (i = s, f, b)

For Multilayer structure

L1= l1*n+(n-1)*[(h1+h2)+(1/2)-Ar*h2) ] nuc1
L2= l2*n* nuc2
(1=warp, 2=weft)

For 2D &UD structure

L1= l1*n*nuc1
L2= l2*n* nuc2
(1=warp, 2=weft)

The cross-sectional area (Ai ) of each tow

unit cell

Computation of Parameters
The

total volume of each tow is

Vi = LiAi , i = s, f, b

The

mass of the unit cell Muc can be calculated

by the aggregation of all the linear masses
Muc = Lii , i=s,f ,b

Computation of
Parameters
The

areal density can be calculated as

Suc =Muc/LxLy

The

overall FVF can be calculated as

FVF =(Vs+Vf+Vb) Pf / LXLYH

Fabric parameters
For

Orthogonal Structure
f b ns nf nb s, f, b

158 315

For

s
98

158

3 4 2

98 3

4 5

AR

0.6X10-3 /4 11

angle interlock structure

f b ns nf nb s, f, b

315

Pf

Pf AR

0.6X10-3 /4

11

Contd..
For

multilayer structure

1 2
n
394 275

1 2
Pf AR
3
0.6X10-3 /4

For

2D structure

1
394

2
275

For

UD structure

1 2 n
708 79 3

n
3

11

1 2
Pf
AR
0.6X10-3 /4 11

1 2
Pf AR
0.6X10-3 0.03X10-3 /4

11

COMPARISION OF MEASURED AND

PREDICTED VALUES OF FABRIC
THICKNESS

1.6

1.2
MEASURED
PREDICTED

FABRIC
0.8 THICKNESS IN mm.

0.4

UD

2D

ORTHOGONALANGLE INTERLOCK MULTILAYER

COMPARISION OF MEASURED AND

PREDICTED VALUES OF FABRIC
AREAL DENSITY
1.3

1.2

AREAL DENSITY IN Kg. / Sq. M.

1.1

MEASURED
PREDICTED

COMPARISION OF MEASURED AND

PREDICTED VALUES OF FVF
0.5
0.4
0.3

FVF

0.2
0.1
0

MEASURED
PREDICTED

Error analysis
Calculated

values are in good

agreement with measured values

Measured

values of fiber volume

fraction in all cases are slightly
higher than calculated values

CAUSE OF ERROR
Geometrical irregularity is mainly due
to weaving variations
- Different tension in warp and weft direction
- Beat up operation to organize filler tows
- Displacement caused by warp binding tows
- Overall poor control exercised during weaving

CONCLUSIONS
The

model provides a close approximation of the

3D woven orthogonal and angle interlock
structure analyzed here.
The error of measurement between calculated
and measured results may be due to
measurement error or assumptions made
regarding straight tow path with zero crimp.
In order to model the geometric characteristic
more accurately, better control over the weaving
process is essential.

Mechanical Analysis
Mechanical

analysis of 3D woven

fabrics
Mechanical

composites

analysis of 3D woven

Influence of different 3D structures on

mechanical properties of fabrics
ULTIMATE STRENGTH
(kN)
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

UD

plain

multilayer

ortho

interlock

Extension at break (mm.)

2.5

1.5

0.5

ud

plain

multilayer

orthogonal

interlock

Structural Analysis
C

Load

Yarn extension
regon

Decrimping region
Inter-fiber friction
effect

A
Extension

Conventional 2D plain woven fabric has three

distinct zones in its L-E curve (Frictional
restraint, decrimping and yarn extension)
3D fabric produced from multifilament tow
exhibit negligible inter yarn friction due to
smooth yarn surface and low thread density

Structural Analysis
C

Load

Yarn extension
regon

Decrimping region
Inter-fiber friction
effect

Extension

Decrimping zone is completely absent in UD

fabric and very little found in 3D structures
Small amount of crimp is mainly due to the
fact that the samples are produced on 2D
weaving machine

Modulus of various constructions

UD

fabric shows sharp curve due to

complete absence of crimp

Modulus

of all 3D constructions are

higher than 2D fabrics

Multilayer layer structure

is most
extensible due to interlayer connecting
threads

Mechanical Behaviour of
3D Woven Composites

Orthogonal

Unidirectional

Angle Interlock

2D woven

Comparison of Tensile Behaviour of 2D

& 3D woven composites
Tensile Modulus (GPa)

3D Orthogonal
2D Laminate

8.15

7.74

3D interlock

6.43

The tensile modulus of the

3D structure is higher than
2D composites which may
be due to the integrated
structure
of
3D
composites.

Nature of break of 3D composite

Nature of break of UD composite

Comparison of Compression Behaviour of

2D & 3D woven composites
Compression Force (kN)
2D Laminate

0.37

3D Orthogonal

0.57

3D Interlock

0.54

Compression Modulus (GPa)

2D Laminate

2.79

3D Orthogonal

6.79

3D Interlock

4.42

Comparison of Impact Behaviour of

2D & 3D composites
Energy Absorbed (J)
2D Laminate

3D Orthogonal

3D Interlock

Maximum Force (N)

2D Laminate

3218

17.48
14.57
12.44

3D Orthogonal

2539

3D Interlock

2958

Comparison of Flexural Behaviour of

2D & 3D composites
Modulus of Elasticity (MPa)
3D Orthogonal

7.32

3D Interlock

6.61

2D Laminate

5.98

Agenda
3 D Construction
Classification
Manufacturing
Potential Advantage
Applications
Challenges
Research
Motivation
Future Scope

Motivation for
Textile Structural Composites
Specially 3D woven composites

Stress-strain behaviour of some

potential High performance fibres

Textile Structural Composites : Motivation

Textile composites are overwhelmingly superior to other
materials (e.g. metals) on a strength-to-weight or stiffness
to-weight basis
Fabrics are anisotropic , give option to structural design
Weave architecture can be designed according to
mechanical performance of the composites
Stabilise geometrical configuration during
fabrication and cure
Several high performance fibres such as graphite, aramid,
glass, carbon fibres are commercially available
Glass is the cheapest material in terms of modulus/$, most

Textile Structural Composites : Motivation

Technological developments : Tri-axial weaving,
Multi-axial weaving, Three dimensional weaving,
Advanced CAD based braiding and knitting
Availability of a large variety of cheap and
unexplored natural fibres offers great challenge to
develop variety of green composites

Agenda
3 D Construction
Classification
Manufacturing
Potential Advantage
Applications
Challenges
Motivation
Future Scope

Future scope

THANK YOU !

Blast

resistant armour/panel
Used at bottom of the military
vehicles