EXPLORATION

GEOPHYSICS

Seismic Data Processing

Program
Teknik Geologi
PhysiographyStudi
of Indonesia
Perminyakan
Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian dan
Energi

Dr. Ir. Eko

Widianto, MT
2013 - 2014

LECTURE MATERIALS
1. INTRODUCTION (1X)

a. Definition
b. Geophysical Methods and their main applications
c. Level of Petroleum Investigation

2. REFLECTION SEISMIC (8X)

a. Fundamental of Seismic Method

b. Acquisition

c. Processing
d.
e.
f.
g.

Structural Interpretation
Stratigraphic Interpretation
Exercise
Field Trip (if possible)

3. GRAVITY (3X)
a.
b.
c.
d.

Introduction and general application of gravity data

Gravity data analysis for Oil and Gas Exploration
Paradigm Shift in Gravity data utilization
Gravity data analysis for Oil and Gas Reservoir Monitoring
(Time lapse)

4. MAGNETIC (1X)

a. General Application of Magnetic Data

Main Reference
All of the text and pictures
are quoted from:
IPIMS Learning Center, 2009

Exploration Geophysics Main Activities

Data
Acquisition

Acquisition Parameters
Design

reprocessing

Data
Processing

Data Interpretation

reinterpretation
reconfirmation

Subsurface Geology Model

Image A

Image B

Image C

Objective
The main goal of seismic processing is to obtain the best
image of the subsurface. To achieve this goal the seismic
processing should improve the signal-to-noise ratio and locate
the reflections in their real spatial position.
We refer to as noise any energy that is recorded and does not
come from the primary reflections. There are two types of
noise:

Coherent noise: Seismic energy that is consistent from trace to trace.

The most common sources of coherent noise are interbed multiples,
ground roll, power lines and surface vibrations.
Random or ambient noise: Energy that lacks any relationship
between traces. Usually, the random noise is caused by instrumental
noise, winds and geophone coupling problems.

The most effective noise attenuation method (especially for

random noise) is CMP stacking. Coherent noise is usually
more difficult to suppress, and needs more specialized
processes as: radon filters (multiple suppression), notch filters
(power line noise), f-k filter (wind noise), etc.

 The second task of seismic processing is to

locate the reflections in their real spatial
position; this task is known as imaging. The
method used to archive this task depends on
the acquisition geometry.
Today the most used acquisition geometry is
known as multifold acquisition geometry.
Nex figure shows a schematic representation
of the multifold geometry, this geometry
consists on a number of receiver stations
that are separated the same distance
(station distance). Each receiver station
records the wave front produced by the
seismic source; after the wave front is
recorded (during a fix time interval known as
record length), the receivers are move for
the next seismic shot location.

Schematic representation of the multifold geometry

Common-Mid-Point (CMP)

 After the stacking, the seismic section usually does not

represent accurately the location of the reflector. This
is because of the normal incidence travel path is
only valid for horizontal seismic interfaces
The process used to correct this effect is called
seismic migration. Seismic migration improves the
seismic image because the locations of subsurface
structures (especially faults) are correct in migrated
seismic data
The most important decision to be taken during a
seismic processing project is the processing flow.
The processing flow should be adapted to the seismic
data characteristics. The ability of the processor to
find the best combination of process is critical for the
quality of the final section

BASIC SEISMIC PROCESSING

SEQUENCE

1. Preprocessing and Deconvolution: The objectives of these

steps are to:

Sort the data in the channel domain (demultiplexing)

Delete defective traces (trace editing)
Correct the amplitude of wave front divergence (gain recovery), datum
correction (elevation statics) and remove the seismic source effects
(deconvolution).

2. Stacking and Velocity Analysis: During this step the data is:

Sorted to CMP domain (CMP sorting)

Moveout velocity is estimated (velocity analysis)
The moveout is removed (NMO correction) and the reverberations are
suppressed (multiple attenuation).

3. Migration: The goal of this step is to locate the reflections in the

correct spatial location. This process is called seismic migration;
this is a very important step because the locations of subsurface
structures depend on correctly selecting the parameters

BASIC SEISMIC PROCESSING

SEQUENCE

DATA LOADING AND DEMULTIPLEXING

1. Seismic data is usually recorded in field
tapes using the Digital Field Tape Standard
(SEG-D) prepared by the Society of
Exploration Geophysicists (SEG). This is a
multiplexed format that sorts the data in
scan time it means that all recording
channels are scanned in sequential order
for each time.
2. When field tapes arrive to the processing
center they are load in the processing
package
and
demultiplexed.
Demultiplexing is a simple mathematical
operation that changes the sorting from
scan time to recording channel, which is
the conventional format for seismic
processing. The easier way to perform the
demultiplexing is to transpose the field

DATA LOADING AND DEMULTIPLEXING

Multiple
x

Demultiple
x

TRACE EDITING
During this process, noisy traces are deleted to
avoid their negative effect on the final stack. A
noisy trace can be defined as a trace that the
noise levels are higher than the dynamic range
of the recording system. In this case, the trace
is saturated of noise and the signal cannot be
enhanced by any digital filtering method.
Experienced analysts are able to identify noisy
traces in a shot gather display.
Most noisy traces are associated with problems
in the recording system or, in the case of land
seismic data, defects in the geophone-surface
coupling. In the past, monochromatic noise
from power line used to saturate the short
dynamic range of the old recording system,
forcing the editing of the traces close to the
power lines.

Synthetic
shot
gather
with
TRACE
EDITING
monochromatic noise in the trace 5.
If the frequency of the noise is 60
Hz or 50 Hz, it can be associated to
power line source. New recorder
systems have large dynamic range
that allows the analyst to attenuate
the
monochromatic
noisy
by
applying
digital
filters
(notch
filters).

A trace with bad coupling

geophone-surface
can
be
observed in the synthetic shot
gather shows below. This kind of
traces is usually called dead
trace; those traces should be
deleted because they only add
random noise to the final section

GAIN RECOVERY AND TRACE

EQUALIZATION
Spherical Spreading
Seismic amplitude decays with time. The
most readily determined cause of this decay
is the phenomenon of geometrical spreading,
whereby the propagation of energy occurs
with an ever-expanding, curved wave front
We wish to compensate the known effect of
spherical spreading; we want to compress the
amplitudes of the earlier arrivals and amplify
the later ones

GAIN RECOVERY AND TRACE

EQUALIZATION

Amplitude Adjustments
Besides spherical spreading, there are other
reasons for the observable decay in seismic
amplitudes. One cause is the fact that velocity
is not constant, but ordinarily increases with
depth. Because of Snell's law, this increase
means that the growth of the expanding wave
front is also not constant, but accelerating. For
this and other reasons, the observed decay of
reflection amplitude normally exceeds that
imposed strictly by spherical spreading.
Amplitude can also vary from trace to
trace. These inconsistencies arise not only from
genuine lateral inhomogeneities, but also from
conditions in the field. Charge size and depth
can vary along a line (and not always, because
we want them to cultural impediments often
impose restrictions on charge size in particular).

Trace Equalization
Trace equalization is an amplitude
adjustment applied to the entire
trace. It is directly applicable to the
case of a weak shot or a poor
geophone plant. We start with two
traces that have been corrected only
for spherical spreading. Clearly, one
trace has higher amplitudes than the
other does, so our task is to bring
them both to the same level.

Trace Equalization

Trace Balancing
Trace balancing is the adjustment
of amplitudes within a trace, as
opposed to among traces. Its effect
is, again, the suppression of stronger
arrivals,
coupled
with
the
enhancement of weaker ones, and its
goal is the improvement of event
continuity and visual standout. Two
trace
balancing
processes
are
Automatic Gain Control (AGC) and
time-variant scaling.

Trace Balancing

DATUM CORRECTIONS
Ideally, our near-trace section should
represent
accurately
the
configuration of the subsurface. Due
to topographic and near-surface
irregularities, this is not immediately
the case. A line shot across a valley
(FigureA) can make a flat reflector
appear as an anticline (FigureB, the
effect of elevation only).

DATUM our
CORRECTIONS
Ideally,
near-trace section should
represent accurately the configuration of
the subsurface. Due to topographic and
near-surface irregularities, this is not
immediately the case. A line shot across a
valley (A) can make a flat reflector appear
as an anticline (B) (the effect of elevation
only).
A

DATUM CORRECTIONS
Matters
are
further
confused
when
the
propagation path goes
through the low-velocity
weathered layer. The
thickness and velocity of
this layer can change
from shot-point to shotpoint (and, in the rainy
season, from day to
day).
The
resulting
section demonstrates a
lack of event continuity
as well as false structure
(the combined effect of
elevation
and
weathering).

DATUM CORRECTIONS
The key to resolving this problem is to select an
arbitrary (but reasoned) datum plane, such as
sea level, and subtract that part of the travel
time due to propagation above it. In effect, this
amounts to a "removal" of all material above
the datum, and simulates the case of shots and
receivers on the plane. The time shifts that
effect this removal are called datum
corrections, because they set zero time at the
datum plane.
Alternatively, they are sometimes called field
static corrections (field, because they are
calculated directly from field data: elevations,
shot depths, weathering depths, etc. and static,
because they are applied over the entire length
of the trace) and sometimes they are simply

DATUM CORRECTIONS
The simplest of the datum
corrections is the elevation
correction. This correction is
appropriate when the bedrock
outcrops at the surface, or is
covered by a negligible layer of
soil or fill. We divide the surface
elevation (above datum) by the
bedrock velocity for each shotpoint (the source static) and its
corresponding geophone group
(the receiver static). The sum of
these quantities is the total
static, and is subtracted from
the total travel time to yield the
travel time below the datum.

DATUM CORRECTIONS

Let us now introduce some real-world complications. In addition

to changing elevations and shot depths, we now have a nearsurface layer of unconsolidated sediment above the bedrock.
This material, sometimes called the low-velocity layer,
sometimes the weathered layer, and sometimes just the
weathering, is characterized by variability in thickness and
velocity. Further complications may be introduced by the
presence of a water table, which is itself subject to variations in
depth. Whatever the case, the effect of this low-velocity layer is
to slow down the seismic wave, so that a simple elevation
correction is inadequate. In effect, we have to correct the
correction. This compensation is called the weathering
correction.
To determine time corrections (which is what statics are); we
need both layer thickness and velocity. The thickness of the lowvelocity layer sometimes becomes apparent as each shot hole is
drilled. The weathering velocity, however, does not, unless we
conduct some kind of velocity survey. The variability of the
material may require that such a survey be done at each shot
and receiver location, a procedure that is seldom economically
viable. Fortunately, we can get a direct reading of travel time in

DATUM CORRECTIONS

DECONVOLUTION
Deconvolution is a process that improves the vertical
resolution of the seismic data by removing the effect
of the seismic source from each trace. This process is
based on the convolutional model of the seismic
trace. The convolutional model of the seismic trace
assumes that a seismic trace s(t) is the convolution of
a reflectivity r(t) series and a seismic wavelet w(t).
The convolutional equation can be written:

s(t)=r(t)*w(t)
Where s(t) is the seismic trace, r(t) the reflectivity
series and w(t) the seismic wavelet. In seismic
exploration, we are interested in the reflectivity
series, which is the factor that has information of the
subsurface properties. Equation (1) can be written in
the frequency domain as:

S(w)=E(w)W(w)

DECONVOLUTION

DECONVOLUTION
In practice, we are not able to compress the seismic
wavelet into a spike due to noise and bandwidth limitations.
However, the vertical resolution is always enhanced.
FigureA and Figure B show a seismic section without and
with deconvolution respectively. It is obvious that the
vertical resolution and frequency content have been
improved
by
the
seismic
deconvolution.

NORMAL MOVEOUT CORRECTION

The nature of a common-midpoint gather is such that
reflections must be common
from trace to trace. After all,
except in the case of strong
dips,
they
come
from
substantially the same area
of the reflector. In rigth
Figure, we see the traces of a
synthetic CMP gather; the
gather contains 50 versions
(traces) of the reflection
information
derived
from
different
source-receiver
pairs.

NORMAL MOVEOUT CORRECTION

We can see reflections

common from trace to
trace of the gather, but
they are not yet aligned in
time; we have yet to
account for the effect of
the different offsets. As
source-to-receiver
offset
increases, so does the
length of the travel path
(FigureA) and, therefore,
the
travel
time.
We
remember
that
this
increase in reflection time
(FigureB) is known as
normal moveout (NMO).
Before we can sum the
traces of a gather, we
need to make all the
reflections
align
horizontally; we need to
remove the moveout. First,
we have to determine just

Normal Move-Out (NMO)

Normal Move-Out (NMO)

Input CMP-gather

NMO-corrected CMP gather

(with right velocity)

NMO: effect velocity

NMO with right

velocity

NMO with too small

correction: too high
velocity

NMO with too large

correction: too small
velocity

CONSTANT VELOCITY STACK PANEL

The simplest way to
estimate the proper
stacking
velocity
merely
asks
the
computer
to
NMOcorrect the data; we
make the decisions
based
on
the
appearance
of
the
output.
In Rigth Figure, a small
portion of the line
(usually at least 20
stacked traces) has
been
stacked
with

CONSTANT VELOCITY STACK PANEL

Obviously, we do not pick timevelocity pairs for every sample

on the trace; rather, we specify
them on the strongest events,
and have the computer make
what we hope is a proper
interpolation
between
successive
pairs.
That
interpolation is probably linear
in velocity.
How do we choose the velocities
from this sort of display?
Sometimes the choice is easy,
with only one velocity panel
providing a good stack. Other
times however, the correct
velocity appears to lie between
two panels. In that case, our
mind's eye interpolates the
proper velocity. Note in rigth

Velocity-Analysis Displays

Velocity panels:real data example

http://ocw.tudelft.nl/courses/applied-earth-sciences/introduction-to-reflection-seismics

Velocity panels:real data example

http://ocw.tudelft.nl/courses/applied-earth-sciences/introduction-to-reflection-seismics

SEISMIC MIGRATION
Quite often, our plotted
reflection does not represent
accurately the location of the
reflector. This is because of
the principle that angle of
reflection must equal angle of
incidence. In the case of
coincident
source
and
receiver (which our methods
simulate),
this
means
perpendicular incidence and
reflection (the travel path for
dipping reflectors). Since all
events derived from one CMP
are plotted vertically below
that CMP, we wish to move all
reflections
that
are
not
horizontal. The process is
called migration.

SEISMIC MIGRATION
Migration
is
the
repositioning
of
reflections so that their
spatial relationships are
correct. In a sense, we
move updip that part of
the
trace
with
the
dipping reflector on it.
Effectively, we move the
reflection from the trace
that recorded it to the
trace that would have
recorded it if the source
had
been
on
the
reflector, and the travel
path
was
vertically
upward

SEISMIC MIGRATION
The process of migration is accomplished in several
ways, one of which is easy to understand. In left
figure, we see the actual seismic path to a dipping
reflector, and in rigth figure, we see the error
introduced when we plot the reflection below.

SEISMIC MIGRATION

Kirchhoff Pre-stack Time Migration

http://ocw.tudelft.nl/courses/applied-earth-sciences/introduction-to-reflection-seismics

Kirchhoff Pre-stack Depth Migration

http://ocw.tudelft.nl/courses/applied-earth-sciences/introduction-to-reflection-seismics

Kirchhoff Pre-stack Time Migration

http://ocw.tudelft.nl/courses/applied-earth-sciences/introduction-to-reflection-seismics

Wave Equation PSDM

http://ocw.tudelft.nl/courses/applied-earth-sciences/introduction-to-reflection-seismics

Large lateral velocity variations

and complex structure

http://ocw.tudelft.nl/courses/applied-earth-sciences/introduction-to-reflection-seismics

Large lateral velocity variations

and complex structure

(Interval-) velocity model

http://ocw.tudelft.nl/courses/applied-earth-sciences/introduction-to-reflection-seismics

Seismic Migration
Unmigrated Image

Positioning
Problems Blur the
Image

Migrated Image

Migration Reduces
Positioning
Problems, which
Improves the
Image

Courtesy of ExxonMobil

F W Schroeder
04

L 5 Seismic Method

Display

THANK YOU