IGCSE REVIEW: SECONDARY 3

MATERIAL

CHAPTER 1: INTRO TO LIFE

WHAT ARE THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF

LIFE?

Nutrition: the process in which an organism

takes in food and converts it to protoplasm

Excretion: the removal of metabolic wastes and

substances in excess of requirement

WHAT ARE THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF

LIFE?

Respiration: the chemical reactions that break

down nutrient molecules to release energy

Growth: permanent increase in the size and dry

mass of an organism by increasing cell number
or cell size or both. Development (making an
organism more complex)

WHAT ARE THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF

LIFE?
Movement: an action by an organism causes a change
in position or place
Reproduction: the process that makes more of the
same kind of organism
Sensitivity: able to react to changes in the environment

BINOMIAL SYSTEM

The Latin name of an organism

BINOMIAL SYSTEM

Example: What is the genus and species of the

cholera bacterium Vibrio cholerae?

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS

Organisms can be organized into groups based on

shared similar features

The largest grouping is the kingdom and the smallest

s the species.

We need to know common features of four invertebrat

phyla as well as classes of arthropods and vertebrates
(chordata), microorganisms, and flowering plants

MAIN FEATURES OF MICROORGANISMS

Bacteria: capsule shaped with cell walls, free floating
DNA
Virus: just a protein coat
Fungus: animal and plant characteristics, form hyphae
(thread like structures) to absorb food. Fungi reproduce
by releasing spores which travel in the wind.

3 IMPORTANT INVERTEBRATE PHYLA:

Annelids: worms with soft bodies made up of segments
(like earthworms)
Nematodes: no segments - microscopic worms, tubular
digestive system
Molluscs: Have soft bodies that are not segmented,
have a muscular foot that is used for burrowing or
movement. Some may have a shell for protection from
predators or to prevent water loss

ANNELID (GROSS)

NEMATODE (ALSO GROSS)

ARTHROPODS:

This is the largest phylum in the animal kingdom. All

arthropods have a segmented body, an exoskeleton
and jointed legs.
Classes within the phylum Arthropoda include:
Insects: body divided into head, thorax and abdomen,
3 pairs of legs, antennae, can have wings
Crustaceans: body divided into cephalothorax (headthorax) and abdomen, have two pairs of antennae and
compound eyes. They breathe using gills.

ARTHROPODS:

Arachnids: 2 body segments (cephalothorax and

abdomen), 4 pairs of legs
Myriapods: many segments to the body, many pairs of
legs. These are the fast-moving, carnivorous
centipedes, and slow-moving herbivorous millipedes

INSECTS

CRUSTACEANS

ARACHNIDS

MYRIAPODS

VERTEBRATES:

Animals that have a backbone are called vertebrates

The five Classes of vertebrates are: Fish, amphibians,
reptiles, birds, mammals

FEATURES OF VERTEBRATE PHYLUM

Mammals: Hair/fur, lactate (produce milk), warm
blooded
Fish: gills, lay eggs, have scales
Reptiles: Scales, cold blooded, lay eggs
Birds: lay eggs, have feathers
Amphibians: breath through skin, lay eggs

Cotyledon

FLOWERING PLANTS:

A cotyledon is a leaf of the embryo of a seed. It is the

first leaf of a plant. Plants can either have a
monocotyledon (single seed leaf) or a dicotyledon
(double seed leaf) and flowering plants are classified as
such.

MONOCOTS VS DICOTS:
Monocotyledons
Parallel veins in leaves
Petals and flower parts in multiples of 3
Roots are shallow and fibrous
Dicotyledons
Branched veins in leaves
Petals and flower parts in multiples of 4 or 5
Roots are branched but taproot based

MONOCOTS VS DICOTS:

MONOCOTS VS DICOTS:

MONOCOTS VS DICOTS:

DICHOTOMOUS KEY

CHAPTER 2 CELLS

WHAT IS A CELL
The most basic building block of living
organisms

CELLULAR ORGANELLES
Cell membrane Selectively permeable. Controls
substances entering or leaving the cell
Cytoplasm The part of the protoplasm between
the cell surface membrane and the nucleus. Most
cell activities occur here
Nucleus Contains DNA. Controls cell activities and
cell division

CELLULAR ORGANELLES
Cell Wall Fully permeable. Protects the cell from
injury. Prevents plants cells from bursting
Rough endoplasmic reticulum Contains
ribosomes and transports proteins to the golgi
apparatus
Ribosomes Protein synthesis

CELLULAR ORGANELLES
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Does not have
ribosomes attached. Synthesizes fats
Golgi apparatus Modifies substances made by the
ER, and packages them into vesicles for secretion
outside of the cell
Mitochondria Makes ATP (energy) by cellular
respiration

CELLULAR ORGANELLES
Chloroplasts Carry out photosynthesis
Vacuole Stores substances within the cell
Centrioles Help in nuclear division

CELLULAR ORGANELLES
Lysosomes break down harmful substances
Nucleoulus Synthesizes ribosomes
Flagellum/Cilia Help in movement

ANIMAL CELLS

PLANT CELL

SPECIALIZED CELLS AND THEIR

FUNCTIONS
Ciliated cells In respiratory tract. Removes mucus which
has trapped bacteria and dust. Have many mitochondria
for movements
Root hair cells Absorption. Help to greatly increase the
surface area of roots. Have mitochondria for active
transport of ions.
Xylem vessels: - Conduction and transport. Missing many
organelles to allow easy flow of substances.

SPECIALIZED CELLS AND THEIR

FUNCTIONS
Muscles cells Contraction. Have many mitochondria
Red blood cells Transport. No nucleus. Biconcave disc
shape

TISSUES VS ORGAN VS ORGAN SYSTEM

Cell: individual cell performing a specific function
Tissue: cells with a similar function working together
Organ: Different types of tissues working together to
perform a function
Organ system: Several organs working together for a
specialized purpose

CALCULATING MAGNIFICATION

CHAPTER 3: TRANSPORT
Three main types of transport
Diffusion
Osmosis
Active Transport

DIFFUSION
The net movement of molecules from a region
of their higher concentration to a region of their
lower concentration down a concentration
gradient, as a result of their random movement
Ex. Diffusion of perfume molecules

FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF

DIFFUSION
Surface area of diffusion Greater surface area =
faster diffusion
Steepness of concentration gradient Steep
gradient = faster diffusion
Distance Shorter distance = faster diffusion
Size of molecules Smaller molecules diffuse faster
Temperature Higher temperature = more E k

OSMOSIS

Movement of water from an area of high

water potential to an area of low water
potential, across a partially permeable
membrane.
Ex. Water entering a root hair cell

WATER POTENTIAL
Water potential is the tendency of water to move by
osmosis from one place to another
A dilute solution (eg, distilled water) has lots of
available water and therefore a high water potential
A concentrated solution (eg, 1.0M salt solution) has
little available water and therefore a low water
potential

WHAT HAPPENS TO CELLS WHEN PLACED

IN SOLUTIONS?
Placing a cell in a solution of higher water potential:
- Water rushes inside the cell
- Animal cell may burst, plant cell may become turgid

Placing a cell in a solution of lower water potential:

- Water rushes out of the cell
- Animal cell may shrink and die, plant cell becomes
flaccid or plasmolysed

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Using energy to transport a substance

against the concentration gradient

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Ex. Root hair cells or villi taking in

substances

what makes these cells able to perform

active transport?

Many mitochondria for ATP

Special carrier proteins in the cell membrane

SUMMARY OF TRANSPORT

CHAPTER 4: NUTRITION

WHAT IS NUTRITION?
The taking in of nutrients which are organic substances
and mineral ions, used for energy, growth or tissue
repair

CARBOHYDRATES = SUGARS
Simple Carbohydrates
Glucose (monosaccharide = one unit)

Disaccharides= two units

Sucrose, Maltose, Fructose

CARBOHYDRATES CONT..
Polysaccharides= many glucose molecules
Starch: Energy storage in plants

Glycogen: Energy storage in animals

CARBOHYDRATES CONT..
Polysaccharides= more then 1
Cellulose. Structural support in plants. Found in
cell walls

FATS
Made of 2 sub units: Glycerol and fatty acids

FATS
Used for storage
Used for the production of cholesterol
Used for the production of cell membranes
(phospholipids= 2 tails instead of 3)

PROTEINS
Made of Amino acids
Forms long chains called
Polypeptides
(forms peptide bonds)
Used for structural support
and enzymes

TESTING FOR NUTRIENTS

Starch = iodine test (Neg brown, Pos blue/black
Reducing sugars = Benedicts test (Neg blue, Pos
green, yellow, orange, brick red)
Proteins = Biuret test (Neg blue, Pos purple)
Fats = Ethanol emulsion test (Neg clear, Pos cloudy)

MAIN SOURCES (QUICK)

Carbohydrates - rice, pasta, grains
Fats - meat or animal related products, or plant oils
Proteins - meats or legumes
Vitamin C- citrus fruits
Vitamin D- Sunlight and Dairy products
Calcium- Milk
Iron - red meat
Fibre (roughage) Bran cereals, cabbage

DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS
Vitamin C: scurvy (bleeding gums)
Vitamin D:- Rickets Disease (softening of bones)
Calcium: osteoporosis (brittle bones and teeth)
Iron: Anemia (tiredness, lack of energy)

MALNUTRITION
Starvation (not getting enough nutrients)
Coronary heart Disease (Not getting appropriate foods
may lead to stress/increased blood pressure)
Constipation: Not enough fibre/roughage may make
egestion difficult
Obesity: Not enough proper nutrition may lead to obesity

BALANCED DIET
Balanced Diet: Choosing from a wide variety of foods,
with appropriate portions of each consumed every day

BALANCED DIET REQUIREMENTS

Depends on Age
Depends on Gender
Depends on Activity of an Individual

MICROORGANISMS IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY

Yoghurt is made using bacteria that break down lactose
in milk anaerobically into lactic acid
Bread making involves yeast which releases CO2 which
causes the bread to rise
Bacteria are used in production of wine and beer

FOOD ADDITIVES
Food additives can colour, preserve and add flavour to
our food
Advantages include: Food looks more appealing, food
lasts longer, food tastes better.
Disadvantages include: Carcinogens, provoke asthma
attacks and hyperactivity in children, head aches,
nausea.

ENZYMES: BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS

WHAT IS AN ENZYME
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a chemical
reaction and is not changed by the reaction
Catalysts lower the activation energy needed for a
reaction to occur
Enzymes are biological catalysts (Found in living
things)

ENZYMES ARE SPECIFIC

Enzymes are very specific to which molecule
(substrate) they bind to.
Lock and Key model
Only a specific substrate (key) will fit into the active site
of the enzyme (lock). When a perfect fit is made an
enzyme-substrate complex is formed and the products
are formed.

ENZYME SPECIFICITY
Enzymes are not only specific to the substrate
involved, but the environment that they function in
Ex. Important enzymes to know (Trypsin, Amylase and
Pepsin)
- Mouth: Amylase
- Stomach- Pepsin
- Small intestine- Amylase and Trypsin

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON ENZYME

ACTIVITY
At low temperatures enzymes display little activity
As temperature increases enzyme activity increases as
the enzyme has more kinetic energy (faster collisions)
At high temperatures the enzyme completely
denatures. The bonds that hold its specific shape
together break and the enzyme will never work again

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON ENZYMES

EFFECTS OF PH ON ENZYME ACTIVITY

At too low or too high pH levels, the enzyme will
completely denature
Enzymes have an optimal temperature and pH that they
work best at.
Enzymes in the stomach work best at acidic pH. Enzymes
in the body generally work best at 37C (body
temperature)

EFFECT OF PH ON ENZYMES

ROLES OF ENZYMES IN INDUSTRY

Fermentation processes
Biological Washing powders
Medicine (ex. Penicillin)

FERMENTATION OF BACTERIA
Bacteria are placed in a fermenter and supplied with
glucose, amino acids, oxygen and optimal temperature
and pH.
Bacteria multiply and produce many enzymes.
Enzymes are extracted by filtration.

USE OF ENZYMES IN WASHING POWDERS

The enzymes extracted from the fermenter can be used
to break down insoluble substances into soluble
substances.
Proteases: Protein -> amino acids
Lipases: Fats -> glycerol and fatty acids
Maltase: Starch -> glucose
Soluble products wash away easily

CHAPTER 6: HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL

IMPORTANT TERMS
Ingestion: Taking of food and drink into the body through the
mouth
Egestion: Passing food that has not been digested as faeces
Digestion: break down of large, insoluble food molecules into
small, water soluble food molecules so that they can be absorbed
into the blood stream.
Absorption: the movement of digested food through the wall of
the small intestine into the blood
Assimilation: movement of digested food molecules into cells

IMPORTANT ENZYMES
Protein is made of amino acids
Proteases (eg. Pepsin) break down protein into amino acids
Starch is made up of glucose
Carbohydrases (eg. Amylase) break down starch into glucose
Fats are made of glycerol and fatty acids
Lipases break down fat into glycerol and fatty acids

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The alimentary canal includes the mouth, pharynx,
oesophogus, stomach, the small intestine (duodenum,
jejunum and ileum), the large intestine (colon and rectum),
and the anus.
The organs associated with the gut include the liver,
pancreas and gall bladder.

FUNCTIONS OF ALIMENTARY SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS OF ALIMENTARY SYSTEM

+ Liver, Gall bladder,

Pancreas

PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL DIGESTION

Physical digestion:
Involves the mechanical break-up of food into small particles.
This increases the surface area for enzymes to act
Examples: Chewing in the mouth, peristalsis, contraction of
the stomach
Chemical digestion:
Is the breaking down of large insoluble molecules in food into
small soluble molecules which can be absorbed. This involves
hydrolytic reactions catalyzed by enzymes

ROLE OF THE MOUTH

Chewing breaks the food into smaller pieces increasing
the surface area
Saliva softens the food and salivary amylase digests
starch to maltose
The tongue pushes food (now called bolus) into the
pharynx

ROLE OF THE PHARYNX

Food travels from the mouth to the oesophagus
through the pharynx
Food is prevented from entering the lungs by a flap on
the larnyx called the epiglottis.

ROLE OF THE OESOPHAGUS

Bolus moves from the phayrnx to the stomach by the
oesophagus by peristalsis
The wall of the oesophagus constricts (circular muscles
contract, longitudinal muscles relax) behind the food
and relax (circular muscles relax, longitudinal muscles
contract) in front of the bolus

PERISTALSIS

PERISTALSIS

ROLE OF THE STOMACH

The stomach secretes gastric juice, and holds food for
3-4 hours.
Peristalsis churns food and mixes it with gastric juice
Gastric juice contains dilute HCl which denatures
amylase and activates the enzyme pepsin
Pepsin breaks down proteins into amino acids
The pyloric sphincter opens to allow food (now called
chyme) to pass to the small intestine.

ROLE OF THE SMALL INTESTINE

When food enters the small intestine. . .
The pancreas releases pancreatic juice containing
amylase, trypsin and lipase
The gall bladder releases bile which emulsifies large fat
droplets into small fat droplets to increase the surface
area
The small intestine produces the enzymes maltase,
peptidases and lipase

ROLE OF THE SMALL INTESTINE

Protein, starch and fat are digested in the small
intestine
Water and digested food are absorbed in the small
intestine by microvilli
Microvilli contain a thin epithelium, blood capillaries
and a lymphatic vessel called the lacteal
The small intestine transports nutrients directly to the
liver via the hepatic portal vein

ABSORPTION OF FOOD

ROLE OF THE LARGE INTESTINE

No digestion occurs in the large intestine
The main role is to absorb water and mineral salts from
the undigested food materials

ROLES OF THE LIVER (PLAYS A LARGE

ROLE IN ASSIMILATION)
Convert glucose to glycogen
Produce bile to be sent to the gall bladder for storage
Convert amino acids to proteins and excess amino
acids to urea (deamination)
Breakdown hormones, alcohol and toxins
Converts fatty acids and glycerol into fat
Produces cholesterol from fats

ROLE OF THE PANCREAS

The pancreas produces pancreatic juice containing amylase,
trypsin and lipase
Pancreatic juice enters the duodenum via the pancreatic
duct
The pancreas secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon
to regulate blood glucose levels

ROLE OF THE GALL BLADDER

Storage of bile that has come from the liver
Releases bile into the duodenum through the bile duct

TEETH
Purpose: To break large food particles into smaller food
particles (small enough to be swallowed)
Incisors chisel shaped for biting and cutting
Canines pointed for piercing and tearing
Premolars uneven cusps for grinding and chewing
Molars like premolars for chewing the food

TOOTH
Divided into the crown and the root
Crown (above the gums)
- Contains enamel, dentine and pulp cavity
Root (in the gums)
- Contains cement, nerves and blood vessels

TYPES OF HUMAN TEETH

TOOTH DECAY AND REPAIR

Tooth decay is caused by bacteria in your mouth that
mix with saliva to form plaque
Bacteria in plaque respire anaerobically to produce acid
which attacks the enamel of the tooth
Brushing with Flouride strengthens the enamel of the
teeth

CHAPTER 7: NUTRITION IN PLANTS

WHAT IS PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis: The fundamental process in which
plants manufacture carbohydrates

LIMITING FACTOR
The substance, whose concentration is preventing more
growth/ chemical reactions to occur

FACTORS THAT CONTROL THE RATE OF

PHOTOSYNTHESIS/ GROWTH OF A PLANT
CO2 concentration
Light intensity
Temperature
Water Availability
Ion concentrations

DESIGNING EXPERIMENTS
Make sure all factors are kept constant (like the
control), all experimental setups have one factor that is
changed (ex. Temperature, pH, light intensity)

GREEN HOUSES
Can control environment to create optimal growing
conditions
Can grow food all year round
Can be costly/ have a negative impact on the
environment

LEAVES
Leaves have a large surface area to absorb light rays, a
thin shape for efficient gas exchange, many
chloroplasts to maximize photosynthesis, veins to
support the leaf surface and transport sucrose, water
and ions.

LEAF STRUCTURE

IMPORTANCE OF CERTAIN NUTRIENTS

Plants require:
Magnesium to make chloropyll. Magnesium deficient
plants have yellow leaves (chlorosis)
Nitrates to make protein. Nitrate deficient plants show
poor growth.
Phosphate for making DNA. Phosphate deficiencies
lead to poor root growth and younger leaves turning
purple rather than green.

CHAPTER 9: TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

FUNCTIONS OF XYLEM AND PHLOEM

Xylem: Transport water and mineral salts
Phloem: Transport sugars (sucrose), amino acids and
hormones

LEAVES

STEM

ROOTS

ROOT HAIR CELL

PHLOEM

PATH OF WATER THROUGH PLANTS

Transpiration: The movement of water due to the
diffusion of water vapour through the stomata
Root Hair cell Root Cortex Cell Xylem Mesophyll
Cell Stomata
Root hair cells provide a large surface area for
absorption

MECHANISM OF WATER MOVEMENT

Transpiration causes tension (pull), pulling the water
molecules upwards (cohesion)- unidirectional
The attraction of the water molecules to the sides of
the xylem also contributes (adhesion)
Root pressure plays a role in very short plants

FACTORS THAT AFFECT TRANSPIRATION

Wind velocity (High wind velocity increases transpiration)
Humidity (High humidity decreases transpiration)
Temperature (High temperature increases transpiration)
Light intensity (High light intensity increases transpiration)

A potometer is the apparatus used to measure the rate of

transpiration

WILTING
When more water is lost from transpiration than can be
taken up by the roots
Lose turgor pressure

PLANT ADAPTATIONS: DESERT

DESERT
Leaves reduced to spines for small surface area
Leaves have a thick, waxy cuticle
Stems swollen to store water
Roots shallow and spreading
Stomata are closed during the day

PLANT ADAPTATIONS: PONDS/AQUATIC

PONDS/AQUATIC
Produce little or no xylem
No root hair cells
No waxy cuticle
Have extensive system of air spaces in their stem for
gas exchange

TRANSLOCATION
The movement of sucrose and amino acids through the
phloem (multidirectional)
Goes form sources to sinks
- Source region of production or storage (eg. Leaves)
- Sink region of use (eg. Fruit, seeds, roots)
Important for the transport of pesticides

TRANSLOCATION

EXPERIMENTS FOR XYLEM AND PHLOEM

Xylem tests: Water soluble dye
Phloem: radioactive ions, ringing the tree

CHAPTER 8: TRANSPORTATION IN HUMANS

DOUBLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Pulmonary system: Heart Lungs Heart (carries blood
to get oxygen)
Systemic system: Heart Body Heart (carries oxygen
to muscles)
Blood passes through the heart two times in one
complete circulation

HEART DIAGRAM

VALVES

HEART BEAT
1) Atrial systole (contraction) - Both atria contract to fill
ventricles with blood. Bicuspid and tricuspid valves are
pushed open
2) Ventricular systole both ventricles contract pushing
blood into the aorta and pulmonary artery. Bicuspid
and tricuspid close, while semilunar valves open
3) Ventricle diastole (relax) ventricles relax and the
heart refills with blood. The cycle begins again

PRESSURE OF HEART

COMPONENTS OF BLOOD
Red Blood cells (Erythrocytes)- transport oxygen, no nucleus,
contain haemoglobin
White Blood cells (Phagocytes and lymphocytes)- immune
system phagocytosis and production of antibodies.
Plasma: mostly water, transport of ions and soluble nutrients
Platelets: Helps cause clotting (fibrinogen + thrombin
(enzyme) = insoluble fibrin threads. Fibrin threads form a
mesh to trap red blood cells and form a plug to seal the cut.

BLOOD VESSELS

CROSS-SECTION OF AN ARTERY
The arteries carry blood at high
pressure away from the heart.
Looking at the cross-section of
an artery, why is it suitable for
carrying blood at high pressure?
thick outer wall
thick inner layer
of muscle and
elastic fibres
Narrow
lumen

CROSS-SECTION OF A VEIN

The veins carry blood at low

pressure back into the heart.
Looking at the cross-section of
a vein, why is it suitable for
carrying blood at low pressure?
thin outer wall
thin inner layer
of muscle and
elastic fibres
wide
lumen

CROSS-SECTION OF A CAPILLARY

The capillaries carry blood to and

from the bodys cells.
Looking at the cross-section of
a capillary, why is it suitable for
the exchange of substances
between the blood and body cells?

MAIN VESSELS
Kidneys: Renal Artery and Vein
Stomach: Artery to gut, hepatic portal vein (directly to
liver)
Liver: Hepatic artery and Vein
Lungs: Pulmonary Artery and Vein
Heart: Aorta and Vena cava

CORONARY HEART DISEASE

Blockage of the arteries of the heart
Caused by deposits of fatty tissues (cholesterol):
atherosclerosis
Can cause heart attacks

CAUSES/PREVENTION
Causes: Stress, unhealthy diet, inactivity, genetics
Prevention: eat healthy, exercise, stress control

TISSUE FLUID
Plasma and white blood cells exit capillaries and fill the
space around tissues as tissue fluid
Helps supply these tissues with nutrients
Leaves capillaries on artery side due to high pressure
(can re-enter on venial side)

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Not all tissue fluid returns via capillaries
Some must enter lymphatic system (separate vessel
system: not a circulatory system), once in lymphatic
system the fluid is now called lymph
Helps to absorb fats from small intestines and contains
many lymphocytes (very important for immune system)

CHAPTER 10: RESPIRATION IN HUMANS

WHAT IS RESPIRATION
Respiration is the chemical reactions that break down
nutrients to release energy.
Uses for energy: protein synthesis ,muscle contraction,
cell division, active transport, growth, the passage of
nerve impulses and maintenance of the bodys internal
temperature

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Release of large amounts of energy in the presence of
oxygen

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Release of a small amount of energy in the absence of oxygen
In muscles

without O2

Later:

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION: YEAST

STRUCTURE OF GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEM

Air from the environment travels through:
1 trachea
2 bronchi
Many bronchioles
Millions of alveoli

LUNGS

ALVEOLI

PURPOSE OF DIAPHRAGM AND RIBS

Diaphragm contracts and makes your chest cavity larger
Internal intercostal muscles (muscles in between ribs)
relax while external intercostal muscles contract
(antagonistic muscles)
Ribs move up and outwards further increasing thoracic
cavity (chest) volume
Increase in volume of chest cavity decreases pressure.
Air from atmosphere enters the lungs.
Opposite for exhaling

COMPOSITION BETWEEN INHALED AND

EXHALED AIR
Inhaled Air: Oxygen = 21%, Carbon dioxide = 0.03%
Exhaled Air: Oxygen = 16%, carbon dioxide = 4%
Gas exchange is possible due to difference in concentrations
Water vapor concentration and temperature is also affected

HOW ARE LUNGS ADAPTED FOR GAS

EXCHANGE?
Numerous alveoli for large surface area of gas exchange
Alveolar walls are one cell thick for short distance of diffusion
Alveoli are richly supplied with blood capillaries to maintain
steep O2 and CO2 concentration gradients
Air is warmed and moistened when entering the nasal cavity,
speeding up rate of diffusion
Alveoli have a thin film of moisture to dissolve gases for
exchange

WHAT FACTORS CAN INFLUENCE

BREATHING RATE
Fitness
Size
Lifestyle (like smoking and eating habits)
Gender
Age
Exercise (pH and carbon dioxide concentration)

TESTING FOR PRESENCE OF CARBON

DIOXIDE
Limewater test (cloudy in presence of carbon dioxide)
If there is too much Carbon dioxide in your blood it
becomes acidic and using a hydrogen carbonate
indicator we can see if the blood is acidic or not (yellow
= acidic, purple = alkaline red=neutral)

ROLE OF MUCUS AND CILIA

Mucus: To help trap dust particles
Cilia; move the mucus upward towards the esophagus, so
the mucus can be swallowed and all dirt particles and
pathogens can be destroyed

CHAPTER 11: EXCRETION

WHAT IS EXCRETION
Excretion: the removal of toxic materials, waste
products of metabolic processes, or substances in
excess of requirement, from the body.
Ex: carbon dioxide, urea, salts

FUNCTIONS OF KIDNEY
Urine formation
Regulation of blood pressure
Secretion of hormones

FUNCTION OF KIDNEYS

URINE PRODUCTION
Step 1) Ultrafiltration (Glomerulus and Bowmans
capsule)
Small molecules in the blood leave the blood plasma
through holes in the basement membrane of the
glomerulus. This fluid is called the filtrate.
- The basement membrane is semi-permeable
- The efferent and afferent arterioles have different
thicknesses to create high pressure.

URINE PRODUCTION
Step 2) Selective reabsortption (proximal convoluted
tubule)
Useful substances such as all glucose, all amino acids,
some water and some mineral salts are taking back
into the blood
- Most urea and other waste products remain in the
nephron to be passed to the urinary bladder.
Kidney -> Ureter -> Urinary bladder -> Urethra

OSMOREGULATION
Occurs in the collecting duct:
- Low water potential in the blood causes the
hypothalamus in the brain to cause the pituitary gland
to release ADH
- ADH makes the walls of the collecting duct more
permeable to water
- More water is taken from the filtrate and back into the
blood
- Less urine, and more concentrated urine is produced
Opposite for high water potential in the blood

EXCESS SALT OR PROTEINS IN DIETS

Excess salts will result in a very low water potential in
the blood plasma. More ADH will be released and a
larger volume of water will be reabsorbed into the
blood plasma. This will cause high blood pressure
Eating lots of proteins will mean the liver breaks down
many excess amino acids by deamination to form urea.
Greater urea production means the urine will contain a
large amount of urea and be very concentrated

KIDNEY FAILURE - DIALYSIS

Maintaining blood glucose and protein levels, as a
dialysis machine removes urea from the blood stream
The dialysis fluid is specially controlled (example
equal glucose concentration to a healthy person)
The dialysis tube has a semi-permeable wall
The dialysis fluid and blood flow in opposite directions

KIDNEY TRANSPORT VS DIALYSIS

Factors to think about:
Cost
Tissue rejection
Availability of kidneys
Permanent vs temporary solution
Risks of surgery
Time consuming/affects a persons life

GOOD

LUCK!

THE END!!!!!