1

Testing of Aerospace Structures

Static Tests of Complete
Structures

Topics

Types of test
Reference Standards
Tolerance Requirements
Choice of the loading conditions
Choice of the test loads
Application Method of the loads
Mode constraint
Parameters measured during the test

Types of test
Contingency tests
Strength tests
Breaking tests
The type of test is closely related to the load
condition, which should be defined;
In particular, while in the first two types of test,
load is known a priori, for the third it is the main
unknown;
Definition according to the regulations

Types of test

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

FAA Federal Aviation Administration (FAR)
EASA European Aviation Safety Agency
JAA Joint Aviation Authorities (JAR)
MIL

Technical standards defined by EASA regulations

CS 22 approval requirements for sailplanes and powered sailplanes.
CS 23 type-approval requirements for aircraft weighing less than 5670 kg
CS 25 type-approval requirements for turbine aircraft weighing more
than 5670 kg.
CS VLA approval requirements for single-engine aircraft weighing less
than 750 kg.

Examples from Reference Standards

Examples from Reference Standards

Tolerance Requirements

Classification of Acting Loads

Aerodynamic loads
Maneuver, gust

Loads resulting from the propulsion system

Thrust, torque, other effects

Landing Loads
Ground Loads
Special loads
Pressurization, impact, loads underwing refueling

Type: distributed or concentrated

Choice of the loading conditions

Fundamental question: what is the size of the
load?

10

Choice of the loading conditions

We try to make a distinction between:
Static loads
Dynamic loads

But when a load must be considered dynamic?

11

Choice of the loading conditions

We try to make a distinction between:
Static loads
Dynamic loads
But when a load must be considered dynamic?
The answer depends on:
The variation of the load (DL)
The time in which it occurs (Dt)
The properties of the structure in which applied

And then there is a simple answer!

12

Choice of the loading conditions

But why dynamic load is important?

Because the structural response is not' intuitive!

13

Choice of the loading conditions

But what are the typical dynamic loading conditions?

14

Choice of the loading conditions

Apply the following constraints
Must be limited in number in order to be realized in a reasonable time
Must be representative, thus constituting the correct set of loads of
contingency (dimensionanti)
Sources from which to draw
V-n Diagram
Symmetrical loads to maneuver and gust

Similar diagrams for non-symmetric loads and details

Origin
Numerical simulations
Measurements on real aircrafts

15

Choice of the loading conditions

V-n Diagram for maneuver and gust

16

Choice of the loading conditions

Each point inside the area defined by the V-n diagram defines a load
condition: n2 conditions;
The outline defines the envelope of the most critical conditions: still
too many conditions to be verified in the test;
Conditions to definitely check: points ADEFG;
Does it makes sense to choose other intermediate points on outline?

17

Choice of the loading conditions

18

Choice of the loading conditions

Envelope of the most stressed parts for the wing structure
in relation to the point of the V-n Diagram considered

19

Calculation of dynamic loading conditions

20

Calculation of dynamic loading conditions

21

Dynamic Loading

22

Taxi Loads

23

Taxi Loads

24

Gust Loads

25

Structural Dynamics and Aeroelasticity

26

Sample Load Conditions

Example:
Terms of load used for
static testing of B777

27

Choice of test loads

The test loads are the set of the loads applied during the
experimental testing that best approximate the actual loading
conditions;
The main simplification applied for passing the load conditions
to test loads is given by the practical impossibility to apply the
real distributed loads (aerodynamic loads and mass);
Not being able to properly reproduce, the actual load is chosen
to approximate the best performance of internal actions;
The test loads are therefore all concentrated loads that allow
you to better approximate the performance of the internal
actions corresponding to a known load condition.
The test loads vary with the load condition and the
configuration of the aircraft

28

Methods of the application of the loads

29

Methods of application of the loads

There are different rules for the application of the test loads to the
structure, and often depend strictly on past experience and the knowhow of the industry that makes tests.
The two most representative mode, from which descended several
variations, are based on the use of:
Load cells
Rubber pads

30

Masting Load
Diagram example of masting load

31

Masting Load
The test loads introduced in the structure are generated by a single
cylinder and distributed through linkages.
Advantages
Reduced number of cylinders
Rigging easily achievable
Precision of test loads only linked to the precision with which the
distances are realized in linkage
Disadvantages
The levers must behave 'rigidly' with respect to the test structure, which
means that they must be sized to stiffness and resistance;
The weight of spars, in a vertical configuration, fell to the structure:
screw jacks must be preloaded in the absence of the test load;
Can reach very large dimensions, requires sufficient space, generally
above the structure

32

Masting Load

33

Masting Load

34

Masting Loads

Some images taken from

static tests full-scale of the
new aircraft Aermacchi
trainer M346

35

Masting Load
In the absence of the space necessary above the test structure for the
development spars, it is possible to use a configuration in horizontal
development. In this case, the masts must be supported by an
appropriate structure, it is no longer possible to do so directly with
jacks.
Tests carried out at the
Department on the wing of
the aircraft from basic
training F1300 shark at the
end of the 80s.

36

Mode Constraint
The modes with which to constrain a structure during the static tests depends
on the type of the structure itself. We can distinguish:
Tests on complete structures
Since the load condition acting on the aircraft is completed real instant by
instant in equilibrium, the resultant of the loads is zero. From the theoretical
point of view, but only theoretical, it would be possible to perform the test by
applying the aerodynamic loads and the corresponding inertial discharges
without the need to constrain the structure. In doing so, however, a
minimum load imbalance on the jacks would be enough to bring the way. The
structure is constrained, usually in areas where they are already predisposed
strengths (trucks, engines, lifting hooks) and occurs through direct
measurement, the reaction forces are negligible during the test, testifying
that the applied load conditions is in equilibrium.

37

Mode Constraint
Tests on components
During the development and validation of a structure
are also carried out static tests on components (e.g. A
wing). In this case the load is not in equilibrium and
the constraint reactions must of course balance the
resultant of the loads. In this case need to be
measured, the more that the constraint reactions,
their sagging, to avoid that such rigid movements
associated with constraint settlements are lead to
erroneous assessments of structural rigidity.

38

Mode Constraint
Measurements of subsidence of the
constraints,
through
linear
potentiometers, at the attack of a
wing, during the static testing of the
aircraft F1300 Shark.

39

Parameters measured during the test

The parameters to be measured during the static testing of
components or complete structures are those necessary to
demonstrate that the structure under test meets the requirements
imposed by the regulations. As often happens, given the complexity
and the cost of this type of test, the tendency is to measure as many
parameters as possible, more than are necessary to demonstrate the
overcoming of the test.
Among the most important parameters measured include:
Forces introduced in correspondence of the jacks (load cells)
Displacements in different parts of the structure (linear or angular
potentiometers, LVDT)
Reaction forces (load cells, strain gauges)
Constraint settlements (linearo or angular potentiometers, LVDT)

40

The Loading Sequence

This is a static test: the behavior of the structure must
therefore be studied and characterized in static
conditions. This is achieved through successive
increments or load, which is followed by the
measurement phase to balance achieved, or by
continuous load increments, with continuous measures,
provided that the speed of the load is sufficiently slow to
be able to neglect the inertial effects.
The three seconds of pause required to load robustness
have precisely this meaning