Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
ADVANCE
PHYSICS
TH
4 GRADING
UBMITTED BY:
hristian Alejo
IV-Marconi
U R IC
S
Y
H
P S
c
e
l
c
u
N
s
u
THE ATOM
Atom composed of negatively charged particles
called electrons orbiting around a positively
charged nucleus. Inside the nucleus are positively
charged particles called protons and electrically
neutral particles called neutrons, collectively called
as nucleons. All these three particles were
discovered in England: the electron by J.J.
Thomson in 1897, the proton by Ernest Rutherford
in 1919, and the neutron by James Chadwick in
1932.
THE NUCLEUS
The nucleus is the very dense region
consisting
of protons and neutrons at
the
center of an atom. It was discovered in 1911 as
a result of Ernest Rutherford's interpretation
of
the
1909
GeigerMarsden gold foil experiment.
The
protonneutron model of the nucleus was
proposed by Dmitry Ivanenko in 1932. Almost
all of the mass of an atom is located in the
nucleus, with a very small contribution from
the electron cloud.
ETYMOLOGY
The
term nucleus is
from
the
Latin
word nucleus, a diminutive of nux ("nut"), meaning
the kernel (i.e., the "small nut") inside a watery type
of fruit (like a peach). In 1844, Michael Faraday used
the term to refer to the "central point of an atom".
The modern atomic meaning was proposed by
Ernest Rutherford in 1912. The adoption of the term
"nucleus" to atomic theory, however, was not
immediate. In 1916, for example, Gilbert N. Lewis
stated, in his famous article The Atom and the
Molecule, that "the atom is composed of the
kernel and an outer atom or shell"
FORCES
Nuclei are bound together by the residual strong
force (nuclear force). The residual strong force is a
minor residuum of the strong interaction which binds
quarks together to form protons and neutrons. This
force is much weaker between neutrons and protons
because it is mostly neutralized within them, in the
same
way
that
electromagnetic
forces
between neutral atoms (such as van der Waals forces
that act between two inert gas atoms) are much
weaker than the electromagnetic forces that hold the
parts of the atoms internally together (for example,
the forces that hold the electrons in an inert gas atom
bound to its nucleus).
BINDING ENERGY
Nuclear binding energy is the energy required to
split a nucleus of an atom into its component parts:
protons and neutrons, or, collectively, the nucleons.
The binding energy of nuclei is always a positive
number, since all nuclei require net energy to
separate them into individual protons and neutrons.
MASS DEFECT
Md=(mn+mp)mo
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Calculate
the
average
binding energy per mole
of
a
U-235isotope. Show your
answer in kJ/mole.
Md = 1.86564 amu
1 kg
= 3.09797 x 10-27 kg
6.022141026 amu
ADIOACTIV
DECAY
Radioactive
decay is
the
spontaneous breakdown of an
atomic nucleus resulting in the
release of energy and matter
from the nucleus.
Radioactive Elements
Element
Technetium
Promethium
Polonium
Astatine
Radon
Francium
Radium
Actinium
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Tc-91
Pm-145
Po-209
At-210
Rn-222
Fr-223
Ra-226
Ac-227
Th-229
Pa-231
U-236
Np-237
Pu-244
Am-243
Cm-247
Half-life
of Most Stable Istope
4.21 x 106years
17.4 years
102 years
8.1 hours
3.82 days
22 minutes
1600 years
21.77 years
7.54 x 104years
3.28 x 104years
2.34 x 107years
2.14 x 106years
8.00 x 107years
7370 years
1.56 x 107years
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Ununtrium
Flerovium
Ununpentium
Livermorium
Ununseptium
Ununoctium
Bk-247
Cf-251
Es-252
Fm-257
Md-258
No-259
Lr-262
Rf-265
Db-268
Sg-271
Bh-267
Hs-269
Mt-276
Ds-281
Rg-281
Cn-285
Uut-284
Fl-289
Uup-289
Lv-293;
Unknown
Uuo-294
1380 years
898 years
471.7 days
100.5 days
51.5 days
58 minutes
4 hours
13 hours
32 hours
2.4 minutes
17 seconds
9.7 seconds
0.72 seconds
11.1 seconds
26 seconds
29 seconds
0.48 seconds
2.65 seconds
87 milliseconds
61 milliseconds
1.8 milliseconds
ARBON DATIN
NUCLEAR
REACTION
In
a
nuclear
reaction,
the
total(relativistic) energy is conserved.
The "missing" rest mass must therefore
reappear as kinetic energy released in
the reaction; its source is the
nuclearbinding
energy.
Using
Einstein'smass-energy
equivalenceformulaE=mc,
the
amount of energy released can be
determined. We first need the energy
equivalent of oneatomic mass unit:
1uc=(1.660541027kg)(2.997921
08m/s)=1.492421010kg(m/s)=1.492
421010J(Joule
)(1MeV/1.602181013J)=931.49MeV,s
o1uc=931.49MeV.
Hence, the energy released is 0.0238 931
MeV = 22.2MeV.
Expressed differently: the mass is
reduced by 0.3%, corresponding to 0.3%
of 90PJ/kg is 300TJ/kg.
the
product
nucleus
is
RADIATION
AND YOU
Uses of radiation
In medicine
Radiation and radioactive substances are used
for diagnosis, treatment, and research. X-rays,
for example, pass through muscles and other
soft tissue but are stopped by dense materials.
This property of X-rays enables doctors to find
broken bones and to locate cancers that might
be growing in the body.Doctors also find certain
diseases by injecting a radioactive substance and
monitoring the radiation given off as the
substance moves through the body.Radiation
used for cancer treatment is called ionizing
radiation because it forms ions in the cells of the
tissues it passes through as it dislodges
electrons from atoms. This can kill cells or
change genes so the cells cannot grow. Other
In Communication
All modern communication systems use forms
of electromagnetic radiation. Variations in the
intensity of the radiation represent changes in
the sound, pictures, or other information being
transmitted. For example, a human voice can be
sent as a radio wave or microwave by making the
wave vary to correspond variations in the voice.
Musicians have also experimented with gamma
sonification, or using nuclear radiation, to
produce sound and music.
In Science
Researchers
use
radioactive
atoms
to
determine the age of materials that were once
part of a living organism. The age of such
materials can be estimated by measuring the
amount of radioactive carbon they contain in a
process calledradiocarbon dating. Similarly,
using other radioactive elements, the age of
rocks and other geological features (even some
man-made objects) can be determined; this is
calledRadiometric
dating.
Environmental
scientists use radioactive atoms, known astracer
atoms, to identify the pathways taken by
pollutants through the environment.
Radiation is used to determine the composition
of materials in a process calledneutron
activation analysis. In this process, scientists
RISK of RADIATION
If we consider the risk connected with ionising
radiation it is sensible to think first about the
risks which are more familiar to us. Almost every
activity brings some risk, sometimes even
deadly. In general terms we would quantify the
risk as something proportional to the probability
of a given accident and the result of the
accident expressed on a (0, 1) scale. In order to
make the situation simple, let us consider the
extreme case only: the risk of deadly sickness or
a death in an accident. We cross the road, drink
alcohol, smoke cigarettes, work in dangerous
conditions - in all cases there is some probability
of death. According to physicist Georg Marx, it
is convenient to use the termmicrorisk- the risk
that among 1 million people subjected to a given