TOPIC 1:

HYDROLOG
Y
 The Drainage Basin System
Content:


 A study of the terminology and processes

operating within drainage basins. Examples
should be studied in a variety of climatic
environments.


 Inputs, outputs, stores and flows.

 These should include precipitation,
evaporation, evapotranspiration, interception,
throughfall, stemflow, infiltration, percolation,
overland flow, throughflow, baseflow, water
tables, groundwater, recharge.
The concept of a system
 A system is a series of input, processes and
outputs.


 It may be applied at any scale from the universe

to the earth.


 For example; from the global hydrological cycle to

individual drainage basin.


Diagram of global hydrological cycle
 The hydrological cycle
 The global hydrological cycle is a system that
summarizes the global circulation of moisture and
energy between the land, sea and the
atmosphere.
 The cycle has a series of stores in which moisture is
held, such as the oceans and ice caps.
 A series of transfers or flows within and between
the stores, such as condensation and evaporation.
 In the global hydrological cycle the water is moved
between the stores.
 The amount of water that is held in the stores
varies in different areas and over time.
 All water is part of a continuous circulation, fuelled
by the input of energy from the sun.
  There are no effective gains or losses in the cycle
since there is a fixed amount of water.
Therefore, the global hydrological cycle is a
close system.
 In an open system, there is movement of both
energy and materials in and out of the system.
Therefore, the drainage basin system is said to
be open as both inputs and outputs of energy
and material occur.



Energy and materials Open System Energy and materials
The drainage basin hydrological cycle
 The drainage basin hydrological cycle summarizes
the characteristics of a single river basin.
 It is an ideal unit of study because its boundaries
are distinct with a watershed and the sea.
 It is an open system with inputs of energy and
precipitation an outputs of water and eroded
material.
 A drainage basin is the land area or catchment
area drained by a single river and its tributaries.
 An imaginary lined called the watershed separates
one drainage basin from another.
 The watershed usually follows a ridge of high land
and any water falling on the other side of the
ridge flows into an adjacent drainage basin.
Diagram of drainage basin
hydrological cycle
 Why Drainage Basin Is an Open System?
 A drainage basin is an open system.
 It forms part of the hydrological cycle.

 The drainage basin is viewed as a system:

 INPUT OUTPUT
e form of Precipitation (Rain & Snow)
her by the river carrying it into the sea or through evapotranspiration (the los


 Within this system some of the water, may:




STORED TRANSFERS (FLOWS)

Either in lakes or in the soil
Pass through a series of transfers such as infiltration, percolation and
 Inputs, Outputs, Stores, Flows
INPUTS OUTPUTS STORES FLOWS
- Evaporation - Atmosphere Vertical:
Precipitation Transpiration - Interception - Throughfall
Evapotranspiration - Soil - Stemflow
- Runoff or - Surface - Infiltration
Overland - Groundwater - Percolation
flow - Channel - Capillary
Action

Lateral:
- Runoff ***
- Throughflow
- Baseflow
INPUT
 Inputs to a drainage basin
 Inputs include energy from the sun and
precipitation.


 Precipitation is all of the water that reaches the

ground surface from the atmosphere.


 It is mainly rain and snow falling within the drainage

basin.


 Some precipitation may fall directly into the streams

and rivers, some may fall onto the land surface or
be intercepted by vegetation and make its way
along a variety of routes to the streams, which run
into a single stream to the basin outlet.

 Inputs to a drainage basin
 Aspect of Precipitation:
 1. Cause
 2. Nature
 3. Intensity
 4. Distribution
 5. Reliability



CAUSES OF PRECIPITATION


 The cause of precipitation is air cooling.

 Air always contains moisture, even on a dry day.
 The moisture is normally held as an invisible gas
(water vapour).
 When the air cools below a particular temperature
(dew point) it can no longer hold water as vapour
and it condenses to become liquid water.
 Thus, precipitation take place.
 The dew point temperature depends on the
amount of water in the air.
 Air with a large amount of water vapour only needs
to cool a little to become saturated.
 Air with little water vapour has to cool down a lot
before its vapour condenses.


NATURE OF PRECIPITATION


 It varies with location.

 Rain, sleet, hail, snow, fog and dew are all
different forms of precipitation.
 Drainage basins in high latitudes and high
altitudes experience more rain, sleet and snow.
 In other places, fog can be an important form of
precipitation. For example; fog-drip from trees
accounts for 65% of the annual measured
precipitation input.
 Lowland basins may experience more in the way
of convectional rainstorms.
INTENSITY OF PRECIPITATION


 The greater the intensity of a storm the shorter will

be its duration.


 Convectional thunderstorms are shorts, heavy and

maybe confined to small area, whereas the
passing of warm front of a depression will give a
longer period of more steady rainfall extending
over the entire basin.

OUTPUT
 Outputs of drainage basins
Water is lost by:


 the river draining into a lake or the sea at its

mouth.
 Water percolating deep underground into
groundwater stores where it is effetively lost
from the system.


(A) EVAPORATION


 It is the process by which moisture is directly lost

into the atmosphere from various water surfaces
and the soil due to the effect of air movement of
the sun’s heat.
 It is the transformation of liquid water back to its
gaseous water vapour form.

 Evaporation rates affected by temperature, wind
speed, humidity, hours of sunshine and other
climatic factors.
 Evaporation is most effective if:
1. There is a high energy input, e.g. a warm sunny day.
2. There is a wind to stir up and remove the saturated
layer of air.
3. The surrounding air is dry, and so more easily absorbs
water from puddles, ponds or wet soil.


 The amount of evaporation taking place also

depends on the nature of the surface.
 The simplest case is evaporation from an open
water surface.
 Evaporation rates from soils can be both higher and
lower than evaporation from water bodies.
 Saturated soil can have a higher evaporation rate
because the exposed surface area and the supply
of water are greater.
 Diagrams of
saturated soil & unsaturated soil
 Outputs of drainage basins
(B) TRANSPIRATION


 It is a biological process by which water is lost from a

plant through the minute pores (stomata) in its
leaves.
 Transpiration rates depend on the time of year, the
type and amount of vegetation (existing humidity
in the air) and the length of the growing season. As
well as, heat energy and wind speed.
 Plants use water to transport nutrients from the soil
to leaves, stems and branches.
 Small pores on the leaf called stomata open to allow
evaporation of moisture through the leaf pores.
 The total surface area of leaves on a tree is
considerably greater than the land area under the
tree, so transpiration is an extremely effective way
for water to leave the soil and re-enter the
For example:


 In a dense forest, over 60% of water loss is by

transpiration.
 In semi-arid areas, where the topsoil dries out,
transpiration forms the major pathway for
water to return from the soil to the
atmosphere.




 Outputs of drainage basins
(C) EVAPOTRANSPIRATION


 Water lost from vegetation via both evaporation

and transpiration.
 Evaporation: A physical process where moisture
is lost directly to the atmosphere from soil and
water surface due to the suns heat.
 Transpiration: A biological process where water
is lost from stomata pores in plant leaves.
 Two types of evaporation can be distinguished:
1. Potential Evapotranspiration
2. Actual Evapotranspiration

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
 Potential Evapotranspiration: It is the maximum
possible level of evapotranspiration given the
characteristics of the vegetation, the availibality of
heat energy, atmospheric humidity, wind speed
and the availability of water. For example; In the
Desert Areas, the potential evapotranspiration is
high, but the amount that can take place is limited
due to the minimal moisture available.
 Actual Evapotranspiration: It is what actually
occurs. For example; In the UK, there is more
water available for evapotranspiration than takes
place.
 Therefore,
 If the surface soil layer has dried out (although
there may still be water deeper in the soil), the
amount of evapotranspiration taking place will be
much reduced and as a consequence, the level of
actual evapotranspiration will be much lower than
the potential level.
 Case Study: Evapotranspiration
 A HOT DESERT ENVIRONMENT


 For example in Sahara.

 The very hot temperatures mean there is a very
high potential evapotranspiration.
 Potential evapotranspiration is the amount of
water loss that would take place with an
unlimited supply of water.
 Transpiration rates are very high but the lack of
rainfall often below 250mm per year and limited
vegetation cover mean that the actual
evapotranspiration is low.
 Case Study: Evapotranspiration
 A TEMPERATE ENVIRONMENT


 For example: A deciduous woodland in Britain

 On average, the cooler, damper climate means the
amount of water available for evapotranspiration
is greater than the amount that takes place
called actual evapotranspiration.
 In deciduous woodland, the transpiration rates are
lower than in the Sahara although the actual
amount of evapotranspiration is much higher
because of the greater availability of moisture.
STORES
 Drainage basin Stores
(A) INTERCEPTION


 The first raindrops of a storm will fall on trees or plants

which shelter the underlying ground.


 This is called interception storage and naturally will be

greater in a woodland area than over grassland.


 If the precipitation is light and of short duration, much of

the water may never reach the ground and may be
quickly lost to the system through evaporation.


 Once the precipitation occurs, there are several possible

routes taken place (transfers or flows):
1. THROUGHFALL
2. STEMFLOW
3. DRIP

 THROUGHFALL
 where the precipitation
falls through spaces in the
tree canopy and passes
quickly to the ground.


 STEMFLOW
 a slower movement of
the water trickling down
stems and branches.


 DRIP
 when the water drips
from leaves onto the
ground.

 The amount of water stored by interception depends
on several factors:
1.Precipitation Type: Snow, rain and hail behave
differently in terms of generating interception or
runoff.
2.Precipitation Intensity: Light rain and heavy rain
produce different levels of interception and
runoff.
3.Precipitation Duration: Short showers and
prolonged rainfall produce different effects in the
basin.
4.Nature of the Vegetation: Grass and woodland
respond differently to rainfall events.
5.Time of Year: Different seasons influence the
water cycle differently.
6.Agricultural Land Use: Different crops have
different impacts on interception.
(B) SURFACE STORAGE


 If rainfall is very heavy the ground may not be able

to absorb it all so there is surface storage.
 The soil or bedrock surface is an important store
for water.
 Surface water stores include puddles, ponds, lakes
and wetlands.
 Surface storage is a major source of water for
human use.
 It is easy to access and may serve multiple
purposes, for example; recreation, fishing,
transport.

 The amount of surface storage available depends on:
1.Rock Permeablility – impermeable rocks allow large
surface stores, but where there are permeable
rocks water is stored underground.
2.Relief – even quite gentle slope-angle allow water to
drain away; flat areas or basins are needed to
create large surface stores.
 By building dams or creating terraces it is possible to
engineer large surface stores.
 Surface storage is very useful for human purposes, it
is also prone to human mismanagement.
CASE STUDY:

 The Aral Sea is a classic example. Since 1960,

human interference in the rivers supplying water to
the sea has caused its volume to shrink by 70%
and to divide into two lakes.
 Between 1990 and 1992, the total area of the two
lakes fell from 36 500km² to  abo ut 33 650km ² - a 
re duc tio n o f almo st 4%  pe r ye ar.
(C) SOIL STORE


 While people depend on surface and groundwater

stores for drinking water, soil storage is essential
for our food because water stored in the soil
maintains plant life.
 Soil storage is highly variable, being completely
saturated after heavy prolonged rain but drying out
after a few weeks with little rain.
 Farmers often try to alter soil moisture to suit crop
needs.
 Drainage can reduce excess soil moisture, whilst
irrigation tops up any soil moisture deficiencies.
 Soil moisture is important for maintaining stream
flow in dry conditions and reducing runoff totals in
storms.

 Soil Moisture storage
depends on several factors:
1.Soil Depth
2.Soil Texture [e.g. sand, silt,
clay – a sandy soil has
reasonabled-sized pores
between each grain]
3.Soil Structure [e.g. a good
crumb structure produces
lots of additional storage
space between the peds]
4.Land Use and
Management Practices
[using heavy machinery
on wet soils can destroy
The effect of soil texture and structure 
the soil structure leaving on the transmission of water.
a much reduced soil A fine­grained soil texture can produce a 
store] large volume of tiny pores which 
transmit water very slowly
(D) GROUNDWATER STORAGE


 The process of percolation produces ground water

storage. Water eventually collects above an
impermeable rock layer or it may fill all the pores
spaces, creating a zone of saturation.
 The upper boundary of the saturated material, i.e. the
upper surface of the groundwater layer is known as
the water table. The water table represents the
boundary between the saturated rocks underneath
and the unsaturated rocks above.
 When the water table rises, river levels also rise and
streams will start to flow from springs higher on the
hillside.
 After a period with little rain, the water table will fall,
river levels will drop and only the lowest springs in
the valley will flow.
 After prolonged drought the water table may drop
below the level of the river channel and the river
will dry up completely.

 Human uses of river have a big influence on
groundwater levels.
 By abstracting water for domestic, industrial or
agricultural use, the hydrological cycle is short-
circuited.
 Where people extract groundwater it is essential
they pay close attention to recharge.
 RECHARGE - Replacement of water lost during
drier periods.
 Recharge takes place naturally when winter rain
exceeds evaporation and runoff rates, but if
demands on an aquifer (rock that can hold
water) are high, extraction may exceed natural
recharge and the reservoir will continue to
diminish gradually.
 An Unsaturated Zone, where:
a) Soil pores (voids) are mostly filled with
microchannels so water can move as percolation
and throughflow.
b) Biological activity with plant roots and soil flora and
fauna create microchannels.


 An Saturated Zone, where:

a) Water accumulates and all the soil pores (voids) are
full of water.
b) Baseflow occurs.
c) There is no biological activity.
 Flows
(transfers)
 Types of Flows
Vertical:


- Throughfall
- Stemflow
- Infiltration
- Percolation
- Capillary Action


Lateral:


- Runoff ***
- Throughflow
- Baseflow

 Drainage basin flows (transfers)
 Once the water has infiltrated into the soil it may
flow laterally under the influence of gravity as
throughflow or may percolate deeper into the
soil to reach the groundwater stores in joints,
cracks fissures (long and narrow cracks) in the
rocks.
 From here, it may flow laterally as groundwater
flow or baseflow towards the main river
channel.
 This route is deeper and slower and there can be
long delay between the rainfall and water
reaching the groundwater.
 The groundwater flow is continuous providing a
constant supply of water into river channels.
 It generally maintains flow even through periods of
drought and sudden rainstorms have little impact.
 The upper surface of the groundwater store is called
the water table.
 Drainage basin flows (transfers)
(A) INFILTRATION


 Once reaching the ground surface water may soak into

the soil pores – a process called infiltration.
 The maximum rate at which this can take place is called
the infiltration capacity or measured in millimeters per
hour (mm/hr).
 The rate of infiltration capacity depends upon:

1.the amount of water already in the soil (antecedent

moisture in the soil).
2.the porosity and structure of the soil.
3.the type, amount of vegetation cover.
4.the seasonal changes in vegetation cover.
 At the start of a rainstorm infiltration is often quite high
because the soil is dry but as the air spaces or soil
pores become filled the infiltration rate lowers to a
constant value.
Factors affecting infiltration
(1) Precipitation


 The greatest factor controlling infiltration is the

amount and characteristics such as intensity and
duration of precipitation that falls as rain or snow.
 Precipitation that infiltrates into the ground often
seeps into stream over an extended period of
time, thus a stream will often continue to flow
when it hasn’t rained for a long time and where
there is no direct runoff from recent precipitation.
(2) Soil Characteristics


 Infiltration rate is controlled by the nature of the soil, by

the plant and animal communities it supports and by
human influences.
 Where soil is absent and little-fractured bedrock is
exposed, water cannot soak in and will run off rapidly.
 If the soil is present, but is very fine-grained and clay rich,
the pore spaces that water must pass through are
extremely small.
 Hence, water will infiltrate very slowly compared to sandy
soils that readily soak up water.
 Some finer-grained soils have vertical cracks that form
when the soil shrinks as it dries.
 These cracks allow water to enter more readily, but may
close up after the soil is wetted.
 Compaction of soils reduces the size of pore spaces and
the infiltration rate.
(3) Land Cover


 Some land covers have a great impact on infiltration

and rainfall runoff.
 Vegetation can slow the movement of runoff,
allowing more time for it to seep into the ground
(more infiltration).
 Impervious surfaces such as parking lots, roads and
developments act as a ‘fast lane’ for rainfall. Thus,
more runoff but less infiltration.


(4) Slope of the land



 Water falling on steeply-sloped land runs off more

quickly and infiltrated less than water falling on
flat land.
(5) Soil Saturation


 Soils vary tremendously in their texture and structure.

When a soil has been saturated with water and has then
been left to drain, it is said to be holding its field
capacity.
 The field capacity is measured as a depth of water,
usually in millimeters.
 Very porous sandy soil retains little water so are said to
have low field capacity whereas clay soils which are
often saturated have a much higher field capacity.
 During the summer the high rate of evaporation and
transpiration may reduce the soil moisture to below its
field capacity.
 This leads to a condition known as a soil moisture deficit.
 Under such conditions plants begin to wilt and eventually
die and the ground surface becomes hard and dusty.
 When the rain falls again, the soil is recharged as water
 Case Study: Infiltration

 In urban areas, where many surfaces are

impermeable tarmac and concrete, no
infiltration can occur.
 This may also happen in rural areas if the soil is
already saturated or if the rainfall is so high that
more rain is falling than can be absorbed by the
soil.
 When the infiltration rate is exceeded then the
surplus water
 Drainage basin flows (transfers)
(B) PERCOLATION


 Water in the soils does not remain there but moves

down slowly into lower layers of soil and rock.
 It creates groundwater storage found in rocks and
this may later be moved sideways through the
rock via groundwater flow.

 Factors Affecting Percolation
1.Rock Structure or Rock Composition: The presence
of joints and the density of joints or permeable, the
bedding planes and porosity of rocks or sedimentary
rock encourage percolation.
2.Flora and Fauna: Animal tunnels and burrows, root
systems often direct movement of water in soil
horizons.
3.Relief: Steep gradient, water may flow laterally through
the soil or throughflow and reduce percolation.
Likewise, high runoff may also reduce percolation.
4.The presence of regolith or unweathered rock:
Regolith, weathered debris allows greater depth of
percolation than unweathered, solid bedrock.
Permeability decreases with increasing depth of soil
profile thus preventing further percolation.
5.Precipitation: The total amount of water infiltrated and
eventual percolation is affected by seasonal changes,
as well as the presence of vegetation cover which also
determine the amount of interception.
 Drainage basin flows (transfers)
(C) RUNOFF / OVERLAND FLOW


 Runoff is all the water which enters a stream or river and

leaves the basin as stream discharge.
 Some precipitation falls into the river channel directly but
most water reaches it by:
1. Surface runoff or overland flow
2. Throughflow
3. Groundwater flow
 Once in the river the water forms channel storage before
ultimately being discharged into the sea and lost from
the drainage basin.
 The channels acts therefore as both a store and a transfer
for the water.
 During a flood, the river channel is filled with water and
forms a major store in the system.
 Case Study: Overland Flow

 Basically it can occur under two conditions:



1. Where rainfall intensity exceeds infiltration rate

(Hortonian Overland Flow).
2. Where the saturated zone in a soil reaches the
surface, usually at the base of the slope
(Saturated overland Flow)
 (A) HORTONIAN OVERLAND FLOW
(INFILTRATION EXCESS OVERLAND FLOW)

 If the rainfall intensity is higher than the infiltration

capacity of the soil, water will not able to enter
the soil.
 This situation is likely to occur when the infiltration
rare has decreased.
 The water unable to enter the soil will not run down
slope immediately but will be held in the micro-
hollows of the ground surface as depression
storage.
 As the rainfall continues the hollows will fill and
overflow downslope forming a thin layer moving
towards the stream. This is known as overland
flow.

 In humid cool temperate climates such as UK, the
occurrence of this type of overland flow is not
common (in many situations the observed
infiltration rate is very much higher than
recorded rainfalls) and will only occur under
special conditions.


 For example; During intense summer storms in

areas with a low infiltration capacity (clay or
peat soils) or in areas where the natural
infiltration capacity has been reduced by
grazing, farming and industrial activities.


 In semi-arid and humid tropical environments the

rainfall intensity often exceeds the infiltration
rate of surfaces giving rise to Hortonian
Overland Flow.
 (B) Saturated Overland Flow
 Through flow leads to saturated soil conditions at the
base of a slope.
 The level of the saturated zone rises with continued
input until it reaches the surface and further rainfall
will run off as overland flow reaching the stream very
quickly (velocities of around 10m/min).
 Overland flow of this type will not occur the whole of
the slope but will be concentrated near to the base of
the slope.
 The area of overland flow will grow during the course of
a rainstorm as more areas are saturated to the
surface.
 The maximum area of overland flow in a catchment for
a rainstorm will depend on the total storm rainfall
and the moisture status of the soil at the start of the
storm, i.e. if a second storm follows shortly after
previous storm then the soil moisture status will
already high.
 Removal of vegetation cover effectively increases
the rate and amount of precipitation reaching
the surface and as the infiltration capacity of
the surface is significantly reduced this
increases the chance of overland flow occurring.


 Compaction of the soil and removal of vegetation

can occur due to overgrazing or too many
animals on an area of land. Due to trampling by
animals, porosity and void space is reduced
thus inhibiting infiltration. Farm machinery may
also compact the soil.

 Diagram:
The Generation of
Saturated Overland Flow
 Case Study: Antecedent Moisture
 The other main factor of importance is the existing
moisture content of the soil is the antecedent
moisture.
 So long as the pores and fissures in the soil are
free of water they can absorb the rainfall and
infiltration can continue.
 But what happens when the pores become filled
with water?
 The result is that infiltration can no longer occur
and as we have seen, saturated overland flow
takes place.
 Thus, as the soil becomes saturated and the water
infiltrating the soil builds up in the upper layers,
the infiltration capacity falls until it equals the
rate of downward percolation through the soil.
 At the point where the infiltration capacity falls
below the rainfall intensity, overland flow is
produced.
 [Refer to Figure]
 During rainfall, as the soil becomes wetter, changes
in soil structure tend to occur which act to reduce
infiltration capacity even more.
 The impact of raindrops on the surface may detach
particles which lodge in the pores and seal the
soil, producing a surface crust.
 In some cases, this crusting is very severe and it
leads to rapid reduction in infiltration.
 Clayed soils may also swell as they become wet;
water particles in the soil, causing them to
expand.
 As a result, the pores are closed up and infiltration
capacity falls.
 When the soil dries again the clay shrinks and
cracks may develop. Clearly, the soil has a very
 Infiltration capacity & rainfall during a storm
and the generation of saturated overland flow
 Drainage basin flows (transfers)
(D) CHANNEL FLOW


 Although some rain does fall directly into the

channel of a river, most water reaches it by
a combination of three transfer process:
1. Surface runoff (overland flow)
2. Throughflow
3. Groundwater (baseflow)
 Once in the river as channel storage, water
flows towards the sea where it is lost to the
drainage basin system.
 Drainage basin flows (transfers)
(E) THROUGHFALL


Fall of water in between trees without any interception.

(F) STEMFLOW


When the water running down through the stems and branches.

(G)THROUGHFLOW


Horizontal movement of water in the soil.

(H) BASEFLOW


Water may then be slowly transferred laterally as groundwater flow or 

baseflow.


(I) CAPILLARY ACTION

 FLOW CHART OF
DRAINAGE BASIN HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
 FLOW CHART OF
DRAINAGE BASIN HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
 What is soil compaction?
 Compaction occurs when a force compresses the soil
and pushes air and water out of it so that it becomes
more dense. Compaction is more severe when the
soil is wet and less able to withstand compression






 Good soil structure (left) and compacted structure

(right)

 Why should I worry about it?
 Compaction is a concern because it affects
plant growth. There are not enough pores or
spaces in compacted soil to allow
unrestricted root movement, infiltration,
drainage or air circulation. The restricted
roots are often unable to take up sufficient
water or nutrients from the soil. The result is
less plant growth and lower yields,
particularly during periods of drought.
 Compacted soil restricts root growth (right)