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Session Speaker
M. Sivapragasam
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Session Objectives
At the end of this session, student will be able to:
Explain the absolute and functional performance of
an aircraft
List the crucial aircraft and propulsion parameters
influencing the performance characteristics of an
aircraft
Show the forces acting on an aircraft in steady level
flight and derive the equations of motion
Calculate the thrust required and available for steady
level flight for jet aircraft
Calculate the power required and available for steady
level flight for propeller-driven aircraft
Assess the importance of maximum velocity on
aircraft design
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Performance overview
Typical flight path
of a passenger
airplane
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Performance overview
Maximum range and speed for
maximum range
Maximum endurance and speed for
maximum endurance
Take-off distance & Landing distance
These are specifications oriented, directly
connected to aircraft geometry, weight,
and the power plant.
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Performance overview
Functional : Needed for efficient
operation of aircraft
What is the program of speed and
altitude that must be followed in
order to go from a given altitude h1
to another altitude h2 in minimum
time?
During emergency maneuvers or
interception of aircraft
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Performance overview
What is the program of airspeed and
altitude to follow in order to go from
one flight condition (i.e., speed and
altitude), to another in minimum
time?
Similar to above and during missile
avoidance
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Functional performance
What is the program of altitude and
speed such that the aircraft can
change from one flight condition (i.e.,
speed and altitude) to another with
minimum expenditure of fuel?
What variation in flight conditions will
permit the aircraft to cover the
greatest distance over the ground?
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Standard Atmosphere
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Variation of properties
Air temperature
falls at a constant
rate in the
troposphere.
From the
tropopause, the
temperature
remains constant
at -60 C until 20
km above S.L.
The lower
stratosphere is the
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Variation Model
The International Standard Atmosphere
Sea Level :
Pressure = Psl = 1.01325 x 105N/m2
Density = sl = 1.225 kg/m3
Temperature = Tsl= 15.0C = 288.15 K
Velocity of sound = a0 = 340.3 m/s.
(i) 0 to 11 km altitude
T = (288.15 - 6.5*h) K i.e T/Tsl = (1 h /44.331)
P / Psl = = (T/Tsl) ^5.256
/ sl
= = (T/Tsl) ^ 4.256
(2) 11 to 20 km
T=T 11 = 216.65 K, giving the ratio T / Tsl= 0.75187 ,
P11/Psl = 0.2234 ,
11 / sl = 0.2971 . Note T is frozen but not Pressure P
and Density
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Mach Number
Air is compressible, a moving aircraft
disturbs the surrounding air
These disturbances e.g. pressure
variations, propagate at the speed of
sound through the surrounding air
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Mach Number
The Mach number ( airspeed / speed of
sound) measures the importance of this
compressibility effect M = V / a , here
a = ( RT) 0.5 = 20 (T)*0.5
M < 0.8 subsonic incompressible
aerodynamics
0.8 < M < 1.2 transonic localized
compressibility effects
1.2 < M < 5 supersonic compressible
aerodynamics
M > 5 hypersonic aerodynamic
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heating
Example
Wing Geometry
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Wing Types
(f) Delta
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Airplane powerplants
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20
Thrust Vs Power
Piston Engines are usually rated in
terms of Power
Power is a precise term and can be
expressed as:
Energy / time with units (kg m2/s2) / s = kg
m2/s3 = Watts
Note that Energy is expressed in Joules =
kg m2/s2
Force * Velocity with units (kg m/s2) * (m/s)
= kg m2/s3 = Watts
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Thrust Vs Power
Example:
Airplane in a level, un-accelerated flight
at a given altitude with speed V
Power Required, PR=TR*V
[W] = [N] * [m/s]
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Dependence of Thrust on
Altitude and Velocity
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Propeller Efficiency
Where,
V = airspeed, m/s
n = rotation rate, revolution/s
D = propeller diameter
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Wing Loading
Wing loading is the loaded weight of
the aircraft divided by the area of the
wing
Usually defined as W/S (N/m 2) or M/S
(kg/m2)
A measure of wings carrying capacity
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Wing
Loading,
(kg/m2)
Role
Year
Buzz Z3
3.9
paraglider
2010
Fun 160
6.3
hang glider
2007
ASK 21
33
glider
1979
Ikarus C42
38
microlight
1997
Cessna 152
51
trainer
1978
Vans RV-4
67
sports
1980
Eurofighter
311
fighter
1998
F-104
514
fighter-bomber
1958
A380
663
airliner
2007
B747
740
airliner
1970
MD-11F
844
airliner
1990
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Thrust Loading
This is the ratio between thrust (or
power) generated by the engine to
the weight of the aircraft
This is not a unique number nor is it
a constant
Thrust of a turbojet or turbofan can
be boosted by an afterburner for
military applications
At a huge cost of specific fuel
consumption
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Thrust Loading
Thrust and power depend on density
of air and hence altitude.
Thrust is max at sea level, unfortunately
so is drag, hence (T/D)max is at altitude
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
T/W
Scenario
0.4
0.6
F-22 Raptor
0.85
Mikoyan MiG-29
1.1
F-15 Eagle
nominally loaded
1.1
Hawker Siddeley
Harrier
1.1
Eurofighter Typhoon
1.25
English Electric
Lightning
1.2
Space Shuttle
1.5
Take-off
F-15 Eagle
1.6
F-22 Raptor
1.6
Dassault Rafale
1.7
Concorde
English Electric
Lightning
ThrustandWingLoadingTrade-off
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Forces on an airplane
Model airplane as rigid body with four
natural forces acting on it
1.Lift, L
Perpendicular to flight path (to relative wind)
2.Drag, D
Parallel to flight path direction (to incoming
relative wind)
3.Propulsive Thrust, T
For most airplanes propulsive thrust acts in
flight path direction
May be inclined with respect to flight path
angle, T, usually small angle
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Forces on an airplane
4. Weight, W
Always acts vertically toward center of
earth
Inclined at angle, q, with respect to lift
direction
40
D not
D , 0 just
Drag
for
complete
airplane,
D
d
eAR
eAR
wingWingorairfoil
EntireAirplane
EngineNacelles
TailSurfaces
LandingGear
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Drag polar
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Ref : Nicolai
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Ref : Nicolai
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Effect of Sweepback
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Ref : Nicolai
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
FreeBodyDiagram
F
parallel
T cos T D W sin m
dV
dt
V2
rc
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
PerformanceParametersof
Interest
Lift-to-Drag Ratio
Load Factor
Thrust-to-weight Ratio
Wind Loading
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
50
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Trimmed Flight
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
51
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
ThrustforSteadyLevelFlight
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
52
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
VelocityforMinimumThrustFlight
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
53
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
MustangP51Example
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
PowerRequiredforTrimmedFlight
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
55
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
VelocityforMinPowerLevelFlight
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
56
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Limitvelocitiesforgivenengine
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
57
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
LimitSpeedsforaJetEngine
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
LimitSpeedsforaPropeller
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
L/DMaximumcondition
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Velocity,CDandL/DatMax
condition
MaxL/DdependsonlyCD0and
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
MustangExample
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Poweravailable
Propeller Drive
Engine
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
Jet Engine
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Powerrequired
PR vs. V qualitatively
(Resembles TR vs. V)
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
64
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Powerrequired
W
PR TRV
CL
L W
CL
PR
C D
1
V2 SC L V
2
PR
C D
2W
SC L
2W
SC L
2W 3C D2
1
3
SC L
C 32
CD
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
Power required
Zero-Lift PR
Lift-Induced PR
PR TRV DV q SC DV q S C D , 0 C D ,i V
PR q SC D ,0V q SV
C L2
eAR
Zero-Lift PR ~ V3
Lift-Induced PR ~ 1/V
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Powerrequired
1
W2
3
PR V SC D , 0
1
2
V SeAR
2
dPR
3
1
V2 S C D , 0 C D ,i 0
dV
2
3
CD ,0
1
C D ,i
3
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
67
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Powerrequired
VforminimumPRislessthanVfor
minimumTR
CD ,0
1
C D ,i
3
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
C D , 0 C D ,i
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Powerrequired
Wewillshowthatforapiston-engine
propellercombination
Toflylongestdistance(maximum range)
weflyairplaneatspeedcorrespondingto
maximumL/D
Tostayaloftlongest(maximum
endurance)weflytheairplaneat
minimumPRorflyatavelocitywhere
CL3/2/CDisamaximum
Powerwillalsoprovideinformationon
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maximumrateofclimbandaltitude
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
Poweravailableandmaximum
velocity
Propeller Drive
Engine
PA
PR
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
70
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Poweravailableandmaximum
velocity
Jet Engine
PA
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
=T
V
A
PR
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Altitudeeffectsonpowerrequiredand
available
Recall PR = f(r)
Subscript 0 denotes seal-level conditions
V ALT
V0 0
PR , ALT
PR , 0
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
72
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Altitudeeffectsonpowerrequiredand
available
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
73
Intersection of TR
curve and maximum
TA defined maximum
flight speed of airplane
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
C
Steady, level flight: T = D
D T max
q SC q S C
CL
D ,0
2
L
eAR
W
q S
W2
W2
q SC D ,0
T q S C D , 0 2 2
q S eAR
q SeAR
W2
q SC D , 0 qT
0
SeAR
2
Vmax
T
A
W
W W TA
S
S
W
max
CD ,0
max
4C D ,0
eAR
Vmax
W W TA
S W
max S
CD ,0
max
4C D , 0
eAR
TA,maxdoesnotappearalone,butonlyinratio
(TA/W)max
Sdoesnotappearalone,butonlyinratio(W/S)
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Vmaxdoesnotdependonthrustaloneor
weightalone,butratheronratios
(TA/W)max:maximumthrust-to-weightratio
W/S:wingloading
Vmaxalsodependsondensity(altitude),
CD,0,AR
IncreaseVmaxby
Increasemaximumthrust-to-weightratio,
(TA/W)max
Increasingwingloading,(W/S)
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
78
min T
= [ 2/ *(W/S) ( / C
D0
= [ 2/ *(1557.7) ( / C
0.5
D0
0.5
0.5
0.5
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Maximum Speeds
Two equilibrium airspeeds for a given
thrust or power setting
Low speed, high CL, high !
High speed, low CL, low !
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Maximum Speeds
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Mustang - Example
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Example:BeechcraftQueenAir
Theresultswehavedevelopedsofarforliftand
dragforafinitewingmayalsobeappliedtoa
completeairplane.Insuchrelations:
CDisdragcoefficientforcompleteairplane
CD,0isparasiticdragcoefficient,whichcontainsnotonly
profiledragofwing(cd)butalsofrictionandpressure
dragoftailsurfaces,fuselage,enginenacelles,landing
gearandanyothercomponentsofairplaneexposedto
airflow
CListotalliftcoefficient,includingsmallcontributions
fromhorizontaltailandfuselage
SpanefficiencyforfinitewingreplacedwithOswald
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efficiencyfactorforentireairplane
M.
aculty
S. Ramaiah
of Engineering
University
& Technology
of Applied Sciences
84
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Manoeuvre Limits
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M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Summary
In this session following topics were discussed:
Absolute and functional performance of an aircraft
Crucial aircraft and propulsion parameters
influencing the performance characteristics of an
aircraft
Forces acting on an aircraft in steady level flight
and derivation of the equations of motion
Thrust required and available for steady level flight
for jet aircraft
Power required and available for steady level flight
for propeller-driven aircraft
Importance of maximum velocity on aircraft design
86
M. S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences