FLOW

INSTRUMENTATIONS

Introduction
Flow of a fluid can be expressed in terms of its
velocity, its instantaneous volumetric or mass flow
rate in terms of the total quantity passed (either
volume or mass) in a given time.
It should be noted that liquid flow measurement is
affected by Temperature, Turbulence, Transitional
and Laminar Flow profiles. These areas of study
are quite detailed and should be understood for a
full understanding of flow measurement.

Velocity

Flow inferred from velocity

Fluids do not move at the same velocity at all points across a

pipe - generally they move faster in the centre and slower
near the walls. Thus the velocity of the fluid can be either its
velocity at a given point (e.g. at the centre of the pipe etc.) or
its average velocity. The SI unit for both point and average
flow velocity measurement is meters/second. (m/s)

INFERRED MEASUREMENT
In an inferred measurement, flow rate is not
measured directly. Instead, some other
variable, in this instance, velocity is
measured and then translated into a flow
rate based on the cross sectional area of
the pipeline.

Volumetric Flow Rate

More often the question is: "How much fluid is passing
through the pipeline or system? One way to describe a
quantity of fluid is by giving the volumetric flow rate; the
volume of fluid that is transported over some period of time,
i.e. gallons per minute, liters per hour, and so forth. Volumetric
flow rate can be determined from the velocity of the fluid if the
area of the pipeline is known. The equation that describes the
relationship between velocity and volumetric flow rate is:
Volumetric Flow Rate = Average Velocity x Cross sectional
Area of Pipe
Thus Q= AXV
Where:
Q=Volumetric flow rate (m/s)
v = Average velocity (m/s)
A = Cross sectional area of pipe (m )
Non metric units such as Imperial and US gallons, barrels,
cubic feet etc. may still be encountered

LIMITATIONS OF VOLUMETRIC
MEASUREMENT
There are a few limitations inherent to
volumetric flow For example, volumetric
flow measurement devices usually do
not account for changes in fluid density,
which is especially important when
measuring gases or vapors. As the
temperature of a gas increases, the
molecules move further apart. This
means there is a smaller amount by
weight of the measured fluid in a given
volume than there would be at some
lower temperature. Similarly, increases
in pressure will cause the molecules to
move closer together, resulting in more
of the measured fluid by weight in a
given volume. One solution to this
problem is to use devices that provide
temperature and pressure
compensation. Another solution is to
use mass flow measurements.

Mass Flow Rate

When very precise flow rate measurements are
required, mass flow meters are often preferred.
Mass flow measurements give the actual weight of
the fluid that is being transported per unit of time,
such as pounds per hour, kilograms per second,
and so forth.
Mass Flow Rate = Volumetric Flow Rate x Density
of the Fluid
Thus W = Q X P
Where:
W= Mass flow rate (kg/s)
Q = Volumetric flow rate (m/s)
P = Density of fluid (kg/m)

Total Quantity (Volumetric)

The total quantity expressed in terms of
volume passed in a given time.
Total Quantity = Mass Flow Rate x Time
Thus V = Q X t
Where:
V = Total quantity (m)
Q = Volumetric flow rate (m/s)
t = Time (s)

Total Quantity (Mass)

The total quantity expressed in terms of
mass passed in a given time.
Total Quantity = Mass Flow Rate x Time
Thus Q = W X t
Where:
Q = Total quantity(m)
W = Mass volumetric flow rate (m/s)
t = Time (s)

Why Measure Flow?

1. CUSTODY TRANSFER
Custody transferthe measurement of fluid
passing from a supplier to a customeris
one of the most important flow measurement
applications. In custody transfer applications,
flow meters are essentially the cash register
of the system. For example, a flow meter at
gas station measures how much gas pump
into your vehicle and bills you accordingly.
Given the economic implications, custody
transfer applications require high
measurement accuracy.

2. PRODUCT CONSISTENCY
Accurate flow measurement ensures
product consistency.
Flow is used as an input to process
control systems so that the product
produced is the same. As a consumer,
you expect the processed food you eat
or gasoline you used in your car to be
the same each and every time you
purchase these products.

3.

EFFICIENCY

Precise flow measurement can also provide

indications of process efficiency based on the
amount of inputs used and the amount of product
produced.
For example, in a boiler, combustion efficiency is an
indication of the burner's ability to burn fuel. The
amount of unburned fuel and excess air in the
exhaust are used to assess a burner's combustion
efficiency. Burners resulting in low levels of
unburned fuel while operating at low excess air
levels are considered efficient. Well designed burners
firing gaseous and liquid fuels operate at excess air
levels of 15% and result in negligible unburned fuel.
By operating at only 15% excess air, less heat from
the combustion process is being used to heat excess
air which increases the available heat for the load.
Combustion efficiency is not the same for all fuels
and, generally, gaseous and liquid fuels burn more
efficiently than solid fuels.

4. PROCESS VARIABLE CONTROL

Flow rate is measured and controlled
during applications. For example,
during heat exchange, fluid
temperature can be controlled by
changing the flow rate of steam
through the heat exchanger. Other
process applications use flow rate
control to manipulate such variables as
pressure, level in a vessel, chemical
composition, and weight.

5. SAFETY
Regulation of flow is often essential for
safety reasons. Flow rates outside the
desired range can be an indication that
something else in the process is in an
upset condition, such as a compressor
or a pump or even a valve.

Fluid Properties

The following fluid properties are often

used in process industries both as
variables in flow equations and separately
to evaluate and predict process efficiency
and safety:
Density
Viscosity
Fluid type
Flow profile

DENSITY
Density (), one of the most commonly used measure, is the
mass per unit volume of a fluid typically given at a reference
temperature and pressure. Table 3.1 shows how density is
affected by temperature and pressure both for liquids and for
gases. In general, density is proportional to pressure and
inversely proportional to temperature.
Density = mass / volume
The density of the process fluid is important to flowmeter
selection and performance.

VISCOSITY
Viscosity can be thought of as fluid thickness.
Viscosity is a measure of a fluids tendency to
resist a shearing force or to resist flow. The higher
a fluids viscosity, the greater the force required to
shear the fluid and the slower the resultant flow
rate. For example, honey has a higher viscosity
than water, so water flows faster and more easily
around obstructions in its flow path than honey.
Typical units used to represent viscosity are poise
(cm/g/sec) and centipoises (cp).

 Generally, fluid viscosity is inversely proportional

to temperatureas temperature increases, fluid
viscosity decreases. Gas viscosity is an exception.
Gas viscosity is proportional to temperatureas
temperature increases, gas viscosity increases.

FLUID TYPE
A wide variety of process fluid types can be measured.
Often, the fluids contain suspended solids or other
particulate matter that may affect flowmeter function or
measurement accuracy:
1. Clean fluidA fluid that is free from solid particles (e.g.,
water)
2. Dirty fluidA fluid containing solid particles (e.g.,
muddy water)
3. SlurryA liquid with a suspension of fine solids that
can flow freely through a pipe (e.g., pulp and paper,
oatmeal)
4. Steam
The type of fluids to be measured can give an
indication of the type of flowmeter that may work
best for that particular application.

FLOW PROFILE

1.
2.
3.

change profiles several times point in time, a fluid will

have one of the following three flow profiles:
Laminar
Turbulent
Transition
Laminar:
In laminar flow, fluid flows in smooth, uniformed
layers. As a result, there is a very little mixing of fluid
across the pipe cross section. The layers in the center
of the pipe have the highest velocity, while friction
between the fluid and the pipe wall causes a lower
velocity near the pipe wall.

Laminar flow profiles occur when viscous

(restraining) forces have more influence in the
flow stream than do inertial (driving) forces.
Laminar flow streams may be symmetrical or
non-symmetrical

Turbulent:
Turbulent flow profiles often occur with low-viscosity fluids,
when inertial forces have more influence in the flow stream
than do viscous forces. The low viscosity enables turbulent
eddies (whirlpools) to form, which occur randomly in the fluid
stream.
In turbulent flow, the fluid velocity is nearly constant across
the pipe cross section (uniform flow); with significantly lower
velocity occurring only very near the pipe wall. Because of
the turbulence, considerable mixing takes place across the
pipe cross section.

Transition
Transition flow profiles mark the change from laminar to
turbulent flows. Transition flow varies depending on the
pipe radius and may have characteristics of laminar flow,
turbulent flow, or both.
REYNOLDS NUMBER
The effects of the most important factors affecting fluid flow
can be combined and expressed with a dimensionless,
numerical value called the Reynolds number (RD). The
Reynolds number can be thought of as the ratio of the
inertial force to the viscous force in the flow stream. The
basic equation for the Reynolds number is:

 Where:
= Fluid density
v = Fluid velocity
D = Pipe inside diameter
= Fluid viscosity
Because the Reynolds number expresses the characteristics
of a flow stream, it is useful when determining whether a
particular flowmeter is appropriate for an application. The
Reynolds number is especially helpful in predicting the flow
profile:
LaminarRD <2,000
TransitionRD 2,0004,000
TurbulentRD >4,000
Some flowmeters have Reynolds number restrictions on
the accuracy of measurement.

Pipe geometry (design) and

conditions
Pipe geometry (design) and conditions are
the third key component in flow equations.
Pipe geometry can cause changes in flow
profile. Process pipe conditions, such as
roughness of the inner wall, can also affect
the flow. For example, the texture of the
inner pipe wall can cause a slight increase
(smooth wall) or decrease (rough wall) in
fluid velocity.

PIPE INSIDE DIAMETER

In most industries, the inside diameter of a
process pipe does not remain constant
throughout the entire process. Fluctuations
in pipe inside diameter affect several factors
(e.g., Reynolds number). For example,
doubling the diameter of a process pipe can
increase the flow rate by as much as four
times if the velocity remains unchanged
(constant).

FLOW PROFILE DISTURBANCES

A uniform, symmetrical, turbulent flow profile is desirable for
most flowmeters. Factors that cause the flow profile to
change are called flow profile disturbances. Most flow profile
disturbances are caused by pipe geometry. Flow profile
disturbances can affect flowmeter accuracy, although to what
degree depends on the sensitivity of the flowmeter. There are
three types of flow profile disturbances:
Symmetrical profile disturbance:
In a symmetrical flow profile disturbance, the velocity profile
of the fluid remains symmetrical about the process pipe axis.
Asymmetrical profile disturbance:
In an asymmetrical profile, the velocity profile is not
symmetrical about the process pipe axis.
Swirl:
Swirl occurs when the velocity profile of a fluid moves in a
circular motion as it flows forward.

Asymmetrical Swirl Caused by Two 90 Elbows in

Different Planes

Eliminating the Effects of Flow

Profile Disturbances:
Some flowmeters are more sensitive to
flow irregularities than other
flowmetersmost flowmeters require a
specific length of straight piping
between disturbances to ensure a
uniform flow profile at the flowmeter.
For each flowmeter, industry or
manufacturers standards specify the
required length of straight pipe.

Flow Conditioners

Classes of Flow meters

Flowmeters are grouped into four classes:

DP flowmeters
Velocity flowmeters
Mass flowmeters
Positive displacement flowmeters (also
called volumetric flowmeters)

DP Flowmeters
DP flowmeters, also called differential producers, are
the most common type of flowmeter used and account
for just over half of all industrial flow measurements.
Flowmeters in this class measure the differential
pressure (P) caused by a primary element in the flow
stream. The differential pressure is the difference in
pressure between a point before the obstruction and a
point after the obstruction. DP flowmeters work
because of the equation of continuity and Bernoullis
equation.
The equation of continuity shows that for a steady,
uniform flow rate, a decrease in pipe diameter (A)
results in an increase in fluid velocity (v):
v1A1=v2A2

 Bernoullis equation says that the total of kinetic,

potential and pressure energy within a fluid stream
remains constant. If velocity increases, there must
be a corresponding decrease in either pressure
energy or potential energy. If we assume a
horizontal pipeline, we can ignore the potential
energy consideration. Therefore, according to
Bernoulli's equation, an increase in fluid velocity at
the restriction will produce a corresponding
decrease in pressure. The flow equation used for
DP flowmeters is based on Bernoullis equation.
Volumetric flow rate (Q) is proportional (a) to the
square root of differential pressure:

 DP flowmeters consist of two parts: a primary device and a

secondary device. The primary device is placed in the
process pipe to restrict the flow and create a pressure
drop. The secondary device measures the differential
pressure and transmits the result to a control system.
Some of the most common DP flowmeters are:
1. Orifice plate
2.Pitot tube
3.Flow nozzle
4.Venturi tube
5.Wedge
6.Rotameter

Energy and Flow Equation of

Fluids
The total energy of fluid in a flow system is comprised of three components: potential
energy, kinetic energy and pressure energy. When described in terms of meters
head of the flowing fluid, we must consider:
Total Energy = Potential + Kinetic + Pressure
Which includes?
Z = Elevation of the center line of the pipe (m)
V = Velocity of the fluid (m/sec)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/sec2)
P = Static Pressure (N/M2)
= Weight density of fluid (N/M3)
Flow quantity inside a pipe is given as the product of the velocity of the fluid and the
cross-sectional area of the pipe, that is:
Q=V.A
Where
Q = Flow rate (m3/sec)
V = Velocity (m/sec)
A = Cross-sectional area (m2)

Now consider the flow in a pipe with a restriction as shown in Figure 1.

Flow in A Pipe With a Restriction

If the flow is steady, then the same quantity of fluid must pass through the two
different sections of the pipe work in a given time. Section 2 has a smaller crosssectional area than Section 1, therefore, the fluid must travel faster in Section 2
than in Section 1.
Relating the flows for these two cross sectional areas:
Q = A1V1 = A2V2
And when A1 > A2, then V1 < V2

 Because of the Principle of Conservation of

Energy, an increase in velocity in Section 2,
which causes an increase in kinetic energy,
must be compensated for by a corresponding
decrease in potential or pressure energy.
We can write an equalization equation to
approximate the change in the potential
energy (mgh) and the change in kinetic
energy (1/2 mv2) resulting from this velocity
change in the flowing fluid.

 Change in Potential Energy = Change in Kinetic Energy

Mgh = (1/2) Mv
Canceling M from both sides and solving for V;.
we get;
V = Kh
So the flowing velocity will be proportional to the square
root of the
differential pressure sensed across the flow restriction.
Q = AV = AKh
Where:
Q = flow quantity
A= flow restriction area
K = flow constant
h= differential pressure measured across the restriction

 The flow rate is proportional to the square

root of the differential pressure developed
across a flow restriction.
This is the principle behind flow metering
the flow can be calculated if we measure the
differential pressure across a defined flow
restriction
In order to obtain a linear flow signal, we
must always take the square root of the
measured differential pressure

Orifice plate:

An orifice plate is a thin disk placed in the path of fluid flow with a sharp-edged
opening (orifice) in it. The orifice plate acts as the primary element of a DP
flowmeter. Fluid velocity increases and pressure decreases as a fluid passes
through the orifice, which creates a pressure drop. The value of the pressure
drop is determined by measuring the pressure before the plate at a high
pressure tap and after the plate at a low pressure tap.
The pressure drop is typically measured with a DP or multivariable transmitter.

BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS:

Reliability
Industry standards, such as
AGA Report
No. 3, ISO
5167, and ASME MFC 3M,
ensure industry-accepted
measurement performance
without the need for flow lab
calibration. In addition,
extensive research and data are
available concerning the
performance of orifice plates
with various process fluids and
in various industries.

 Accuracy
Because the discharge coefficient varies over the flow
range, the accuracy of an orifice plate varies with the type
of measurement device used. Discharge coefficient is a
laboratory determined factor for a DP flow primary element.
If only differential pressure is measured, an accurate
measurement can be expected over a 3:1 to 5:1 range.
With multivariable measurement, the variations in
discharge coefficient are compensated for and an accuracy
of 1% of rate can be achieved over a much wider range
(6:1 to 12:1 depending on the application).
Compatibility
Orifice plates can accommodate virtually all clean fluids,
although abrasive or sticky fluids may reduce accuracy and
increase maintenance costs because of clogged pressure
taps or particulate matter buildup near the orifice plate.
Orifice plates are compatible with most pipe sizes.

Pitot Tube:
A common Pitot tube design for flow measurement consists of a
cylindrical probe inserted into the process pipe. The probe is bent at a
90 angle so that it points toward the source of fluid flow, parallel to the
pipe wall.
The velocity of the moving fluid creates a high-impact pressure inside
the probe. Using a differential pressure transducer, this impact pressure
is measured and compared with the static pressure measured through
a port on a surface parallel to the pipe wall (usually on the probe). The
differential pressure measured is proportional to the square of the
velocity of the fluid. In some Pitot tube designs, both impact and static
pressure are measured by the same device installed in one pipeline
tap.
Because of its one-point velocity measurement, the accuracy of the
Pitot tube is easily affected by changes in velocity profile. In order to
attain an average measurement, the tube must be moved back and
forth in the flow stream. For this reason, pitot tubes are most often used
as a simple means for obtaining a rough measurement (e.g., for low- to
medium-flow gas applications where high accuracy is not required).

AVERAGING PITOT TUBE

Averaging pitot tubes are
also available, with designs
that include several
measurement ports over the
entire diameter of the
pipeline. The Annubar port
design yields a much more
accurate flow measurement
than the regular Pitot tube.

BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS

Accuracy
Averaging pitot tubes have good long-term accuracy (13%)
partially because they have no leading edge to wear.
However, dirty fluids can clog the measurement ports and
reduce accuracy. Compared to other DP flow primary
elements, pitot tubes create a relatively low differential
pressure, which can make measurement of the pressure
drop difficult and may limit range ability or turndown. In
addition, pitot tubes have a very low permanent pressure
loss.
Compatibility
Averaging pitot tubes are an insertion-type DP flow primary
elements that can be used in pipe sizes from 2 - 72 inches.
In larger lines especially, Pitot tube installation is convenient
and inexpensive. Some averaging pitot tubes can be used
for the measurement of fluids flowing in either direction
(bidirectional capability), and can be installed in the process
pipe without shutting the process down (hot tap).

Wedge Flow Element:

Wedge flow elements are inserted in the process pipe to

create a wedged obstruction on the inner wall of the pipe. A
differential pressure is created as the fluid flows past the
obstruction. Wedge flowmeters are usually used with remote
seals in applications where lagging is a concern. When
impulse lines are used instead of remote seals, lagging is
required on the impulse lines to prevent solidification of
process fluids such as slurries and other viscous fluids.

 BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS

Because the wedge flow element presents
no sudden changes in contour and no sharp
corners, it can be used for measuring dirty
fluids, slurries, and fluids at high viscosities
(low Reynolds numbers) that tend to build
up on or clog orifice plates.

Venturi Tube:
A venturi tube is composed of
three main sections.
Converging inlet conethe
converging inlet cone gradually
decreases the pipe diameter and
creates a pressure drop. A high
pressure tap is located at the start
of the inlet cone.
Throatthe inlet cone ends at the
throat, where the low pressure tap
is found. Fluid velocity is neither
increasing nor decreasing in the
throat.
Diverging outlet conethe outlet
cone increases in cross-sectional
area, which enables the fluid to
return to very near its original
pressure. The outlet cone also
eliminates air pockets and
minimizes frictional losses.

 BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS

Venturi tubes are usually used in applications that
require a low pressure drop and high accuracy.
Venturi tubes provide very low permanent pressure
loss when compared to other DP flowmeters,
although they are also larger and more expensive.
Venturi tubes work well with short straight piping
requirements and, therefore, are useful for
locations having limited space for straight piping.
Because they present no sudden changes in
contour, they can be used for measuring dirty fluids
and slurries that tend to build up on or clog orifice
plates.

Flow Nozzle:

Flow nozzles consist of two main sections:

Elliptical inletthe flow nozzle is mounted in the
pipeline so that the elliptical entrance of the nozzle is
facing the source of the fluid flow. Fluid velocity
increases as it enters the inlet and pressure
decreases.
Throatthe inlet tapers to a cylindrical throat section,
where the low pressure tap is located.

BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS

Accuracy
Flow nozzles retain long-term precise
calibration even under hostile conditions
because the exact contour of the flow
nozzle is not particularly critical for accurate
measurement.
For this reason, flow nozzles are often used
for measurement of steam flow and other
high-temperature or high-velocity fluid flows
where erosion may be a problem.

Rotameter:
Rotameters, also known as variablearea flowmeters, are tapered glass,
plastic, or metal tubes that must be
mounted vertically.
A float inside the tube rises in response
to the fluid flow rate. Because the tube is
tapered, pressure is higher at the
bottom, or narrow end, of the tube than
at the top. The float rests where the
differential pressure between the upper
and lower surfaces of the float balances
the weight of the float. Depending on the
meter design, the flow rate may be read
directly from a scale inscribed on the
transparent tube or sensed
electronically. Rotameters are commonly
used for indication onlythat is, they
provide only a local indication of flow
and do not transmit the measurement
readings to another location.

 BENEFITS AND LIMITATIONS

Rotameters are not as accurate as other flowmeters,
although they are highly repeatable. Rotameters
must be removed and disassembled in order to
change their flow range, by re-setting the balance.
Unlike with most flowmeters, pressure loss through a
Rotameter is constant throughout the flow range.
Rotameters are inexpensive and have a simple
design, although they do have moving parts that
require some maintenance.
Rotameters have a Reynolds number constraint for
liquid measurement and cannot be used with
abrasive fluids. They have no upstream or
downstream straight piping requirements.

Velocity Flowmeters

Vortex flowmeter
Turbine flowmeter
Only above mentioned velocity flow meters
are used in MCR

Vortex Flowmeter:
A vortex flowmeter is a bluff
body, or shedder, placed in the
fluid flow stream that causes
vortices or small eddies to form.
The shedder acts as the primary
device. As the fluid flows around
the shedder, velocity increases
and pressure decreases on one
side, while velocity decreases
and pressure increases on the
other side. The alternating forces
cause vortices to form that are
picked up by the sensing
mechanism. The fluid flow rate is
obtained from the frequency
(detected by the sensor), which
is directly proportional to the
velocity of the fluid.

Turbine Flowmeter:
Turbine flowmeters consist of a
section of pipe that contains a
multi blade rotor and a magnetic
pickup coil.
The entire fluid to be measured
enters the flowmeter and passes
through the rotor, which then
turns at a velocity that is
proportional to the fluid velocity.
The magnetic pickup probe
converts the rotor velocity to an
output signal that has a
frequency proportional to
volumetric flow rate. The turbine
flowmeter is based on the
principle that the speed of a
turbine that is driven by a flowing
fluid is proportional to the velocity
of the fluid.

THANK YOU !!!