UNIT 21 : ALTERNATING CURRENT

(5 Hours)

21.1 Alternating current

21.2 Root mean square (rms)
21.3 Resistance, reactance and
impedance
21.4 Power and power factor

SUBTOPIC :
21.1 Alternating Current (1 hour)
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
At the end of this lesson, students should
be able to :
a) Define alternating current (AC).
b) Sketch and interpret sinusoidal AC waveform.
c) Write and use sinusoidal voltage and current equations.

21.1 Alternating current

An alternating current (ac) is the electrical
current which varies periodically with time
in direction and magnitude.
An ac circuit and ac generator, provide an
alternating current.
The usual circuit-diagram symbol for an ac
source is
.

 The output of an ac generator is sinusoidal

and varies with time.
Current
where:

I
I0
0

I0

1
T
2

3
T
2

2T

I I o sin t

I : instantaneous
current @ current at
time t (in Ampere)

I o : peak current

T : period
: angular frequency

 voltage
V

where:

V0
0

V0

1
T
2

3
T
2

2T

V Vo sin t

V : instantaneous
voltage @ voltage at
time t (in Volt)

Vo : peak voltage

T : period

: angular frequency
5

Vo
Io

T/2

The output of an ac generator is sinusoidal

and varies with time.
Equation for the current ( I ) :
Equation for the voltage ( V ) :

I I o sin t

V Vo sin t
6

Terminology in a.c.
Frequency ( f )
Definition: Number of complete cycle in one second.
second

Unit: Hertz (Hz) or s-1

Period ( T )
Definition: Time taken for one complete cycle.
Unit: second (s)
1
Equation : T

Peak (maximum) current ( Io )

Definition: Magnitude of the maximum current.

Peak (maximum) voltage ( Vo )

Definition: Magnitude of the maximum voltage.

Angular frequency ( )
Equation:

2f

Unit: radian per second (rads-1)

SUBTOPIC :
21.2 Root Mean Square (rms) (1 hour)
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
At the end of this lesson, students should
be able to :
a) Define root mean square (rms), current and
voltage for AC source.
b) Use I rms

Io
2

, Vrms

Vo
2

21.2 Root mean square (rms)

Root mean square current (Irms) is defined as the
effective value of a.c. which produces the same
power (mean/average power) as the steady d.c.
when the current passes through the same resistor.
the average or
mean value of
current in a halfpowerdc average powerac
cycle flows of
2
2
I R I ave R
current in a certain
I I 2 ave
direction
square root of the average
2Io Io
value of the current
I av

I rms
2

I I 2 ave I rms
The r.m.s (root mean square) current means the
square root of the average value of the current.
Root mean square voltage/p.d (Vrms ) is defined as
the value of the steady direct voltage which when
applied across a resistor, produces the same power
as the mean (average) power produced by the
alternating voltage across the same resistor.
V

P Pave
V 2 V 2 ave

R
R

V=Vo sin t V V 2 ave V

rms

10

I rms

I0

Vrms

V0

only for a sinusoidal

alternating current and voltage

The average power,

Pave I rmsVrms

2
V
2
I rms
R rms
R

I o Vo 1
Po
Pave
I oVo
2
2 2 2

The peak power, Po I oVo

Most household electricity is 240 V AC which
means that Vrms is 240 V.

11

Example 21.2.1
A sinusoidal, 60.0 Hz, ac voltage is read to be 120 V
by an ordinary voltmeter.
a) What is the maximum value the voltage takes on
during a cycle?
b) What is the equation for the voltage ?
a)

Vrms

Vo

Vo 2 (Vrms ) 2 (120) 170 V

b) V Vo sin t

V 170 sin 120t

12

Example 21.2.2
A voltage V= 60 sin 120t is applied across a 20
resistor.
a) What will an ac ammeter in series with the
resistor read ?
b) Calculate the peak current and mean power.
a) V Vo 60 42.4V I Vrms 42.4 2.12 A
rms
rms
R
20
2
2
b)

I rms

I0

Pav I rms R
2

(2.12) 2 (20) 90 W

I o 2 ( I rms ) 2 (2.12) 3.0 A

13

Example 21.2.3
V (Volt )
200
0

200

0.02

0.04

0.06 0.08

t (second)

and

The alternating potential difference shown above

is connected across a resistor of 10 k. Calculate
a. the r.m.s. current,
b. the frequency,
c. the mean power dissipated in the resistor.
14

Solution 21.2.3
R =10 x 10-3 ,
a) I rms
I rms

b)

Vrms

and Vrms

V0

R 2

1
f
T

V0 = 200 V and T = 0.04 s

V0

I rms 0.014 A

f 25.0 Hz

c) Pav I rms 2 R

Pav 1.96 W
15

Exercise 21.2
An ac current is given as I = 5 sin (200t) where the
clockwise direction of the current is positive. Find
a)The peak current
b)The current when t = 1/100 s
c) The frequency and period of the oscillation.

5 A , 4.55 A, 31.88 Hz, 0.0314 s

16

SUBTOPIC :
21.3 Resistance, reactance and
impedance (2 hours)
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
At the end of this lesson, students should
be able to :
a) Sketch and use phasor diagram and sinusoidal
waveform to show the phase relationship
between current and voltage for a single
component circuit consisting of
i) Pure resistor
ii) Pure capacitor
iii) Pure inductor
17

b) Define and use:

i) capacitive reactance, X c
ii)

1
2fC

inductive reactance, X L 2fL

iii) impedance, Z R 2 ( X L X C )2 , and

( X L XC )
phase angle, tan
R
1

c) Use phasor diagram to analyse voltage, current, and

impedance of series circuit of:
i) RC
ii) RL
iii) RLC
18

21.3 Resistance, reactance and

impedance
Phasor diagram
Phasor is defined as a vector that rotate
anticlockwise about its axis with constant angular
velocity.
A diagram containing phasor is called phasor
diagram.
It is used to represent a sinusoidal

alternating
quantity
such
astocurrent
andthe
voltage
.
It
also being
used
determine
phase
difference between current and voltage in ac
circuit.
19

Phasor diagram
y

y
Ao

N
O

A Ao sin t

1
T
2

3
T
2

2T

The projection of OP on the vertical axis (Oy) is ON,

represents the instantaneous value.
Ao is the peak value of the quantity.
20

Resistance, reactance and impedance

Key Term/
Meaning
Resistance,R Opposition to current flow in purely
resistive circuit.
Reactance,X Opposition to current flow resulting from
inductance or capacitance in ac
circuit.
Capacitive
reactance,Xc

Opposition of a capacitor to ac.

Inductive
Opposition of an inductor to ac.
reactance,XL
Impedance, Z Total opposition to ac.
(Resistance and reactance combine
21
to form impedance)

i) Pure Resistor in the AC Circuit

VR

Phasor diagram

22

i) Pure Resistor in the AC Circuit

The current flows in the resistor is

I I 0 sin t

The voltage across the resistor VR at any instant is

VR IR

VR I 0 R sin t
VR V0 sin t V

I 0 R V0
V : Supply voltage

The phase difference between V and I is

t t
0

In pure resistor, the voltage V is in phase with the

current I and constant with time.(the current and the
23
voltage reach their maximum values at the same time).

i) Pure Resistor in the AC Circuit

The resistance in a pure resistor is

The instantaneous power,
2
V
P IV I 2 R
R
P I o sin t Vo sin t

The average power,

2
Pave I rms
R

1 2
Io R
2
1
Vo I o
2
1
Po
2

P I oVo sin t
2

Power (P )

P0

1
T
2

Vrms Vo
R

I rms I o

3
T
2

2T

24
A resistor in ac circuit dissipates energy in the form of heat

ii) Pure Capacitor in the AC Circuit

Pure capacitor means that no resistance and
self-inductance effect in the a.c. circuit.
I

rad
2

VR

V
Phasor diagram

25

ii) Pure Capacitor in the AC Circuit

When an alternating voltage is applied across a

capacitor, the voltage reaches its maximum value
one quarter of a cycle after the current reaches its

maximum value,( rad )

2

The voltage across the capacitor VC at any instant

is equal to the supply voltage
V and is given by
V V0 sin(t ) VC
2
The charge accumulates on the plates of the
Q CVC
capacitor is

Q CV0 sin(t )
2
dQ
The current flows in the ac circuit is I
dt

26

ii) Pure Capacitor in the AC Circuit

I CV0 sin t
dt
2

I CV0 sin t
dt
2

I CV0 cos(t ) and

2
or
I I 0 sin t

CV0 I 0

The phase difference between V and I is

t t
2

27

ii) Pure Capacitor in the AC Circuit

In pure capacitor,
the voltage V lags behind the current I by /2 radians
or the current I leads the voltage V by /2 radians.
The capacitive reactance in a pure capacitor is
Vrms Vo
Vo
XC

I rms I o CVo
1
1
XC

C 2fC

The capacitive reactance is defined as

1
1
XC

C 2fC
28

ii) Pure Capacitor in the AC Circuit

The instantaneous power,

The average power,

2
V
P IV I 2 R
Power (P )
R
P0
P I o sin t Vo cos t
2
1

P I oVo sin 2t
0
1
2

T
2
P0
1

P Po sin 2t
2
2

Pave 0

3
2T
T
2

For the first half of the cycle where the power is

negative, the power is returned to the circuit. For
the second half cycle where the power is positive,
29
the capacitor is saving the power.

Example 21.3.1

ii) Pure Capacitor in the AC Circuit

An 8.00 F capacitor is connected to the terminals of

an AC generator with an rms voltage of 150 V and a
frequency of 60.0 Hz. Find the capacitive reactance
rms current and the peak current in the circuit.
Capacitive reactance,
1
1
Xc

332
C 2fC

Rms current,

Peak current ?
I rms

Vrms

0.452 A
XC

30

iii) Pure Inductor in the AC Circuit

Pure inductor means
that no resistance and
capacitance effect in the
a.c. circuit.

VL

Phasor diagram

rad
2

31

iii) Pure Inductor in the AC Circuit

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied across a

inductor, the voltage reaches its maximum value
one quarter of a cycle before the current reaches its

maximum value,( rad )

2

The current flows in the ac circuit is I I 0 sin t

When the current flows in the inductor, the back emf
caused by the self induction is produced and given by
dI
B L
dt
d
B L I 0 sin t
dt
B LI 0 cos t
32

iii) Pure Inductor in the AC Circuit

At each instant the supply voltage V must be equal

to the back e.m.f B (voltage across the inductor)
but the back e.m.f always oppose the supply voltage V.
Hence, the magnitude of V and B ,

V B LI 0 cos t

V LI 0 sin t
2

or

0
V B IR
V B

V Vo sin t
2

where Vo LI o
33

iii) Pure Inductor in the AC Circuit

The phase difference between V and I is

t t
2

In pure inductor,
the voltage V leads the current I by /2 radians or the
current I lags behind the voltage V by /2 radians.
The inductive reactance in a pure inductor is
Vrms Vo LI o
XL

I rms

Io

X L L 2 fL

Io
34

iii) Pure Inductor in the AC Circuit

X L L 2 fL

The inductive reactance is defined as

The instantaneous power, The average power,
2
V
P IV I 2 R
R
P I o sin t Vo cos t

P I oVo sin 2t
2

P Po sin 2t
2

Pave 0

Power (P )

P0
2
0

P0

1
T
2

3
T
2

2T

For the first half of the cycle where the power is

positive, the inductor is saving the power. For the
second half cycle where the power is negative, the
35
power is returned to the circuit.

Example 21.3.2

iii) Pure Inductor in the AC Circuit

A coil having an inductance of 0.5 H is connected to

a 120 V, 60 Hz power source. If the resistance of the
coil is neglected, what is the effective current
through the coil.

I rms

Vrms Vrms

0.64 A
X L 2fL

Example 21.3.3
A 240 V supply with a frequency of 50 Hz causes a
current of 3.0 A to flow through an pure inductor.
Calculate the inductance of the inductor.
V
X L 80
I
X L 2fL L 0.26 H

36

i) RC in series circuit
C

VC

VR
I

VR
VC

: phase angle
V supply voltage

Phasor diagram

In the circuit diagram :

VR and VC represent the instantaneous voltage
across the resistor and the capacitor.
In the phasor diagram :
VR and VC represent the peak voltage across the
resistor and the capacitor.
37

i) RC in series circuit

VR

Note

Vo VRo VCo

VC

2
2

Vo I o R I o X L
2
2
Vo I o R I o X L

Vo I o

R
R

X C ...divide both side by 2

2

Vrms I rms
V I

XC

XC

1
V I R 2 2
C
2

Phasor diagram

38

i) RC in series circuit

VR

VC

VR

VC

: phase angle
V supply voltage

Phasor diagram

The total p.d (supply voltage), V across R and C is

equal to the vector sum of VR and VC as shown in
the phasor diagram.
1
2
V 2 VR2 VC2
V I R 2 2
VR IR
C
2
2
2
V IR IX C
VC IX C
2
2
2
2

V I R XC

and

1
XC
C

39

i) RC in series circuit

VR

VC

XC

Phasor diagram

The impedance in RC
circuit,
1
I R 2 2
C

I
2

Vrms
Z
I rms

1
Z R 2 2
C

Impedance diagram

From the phasor diagrams,

I leads V by
VC
tan
VR

XC
tan
R

or

IX C
tan
IR

1
tan
CR40

i) RC in series circuit

Z
1
XC
2fC

R
f

0
Graph of Z against f

41

i) RC in series circuit
Example 21.3.4
An alternating current of angular frequency of
1.0 x 104 rad s-1 flows through a 10 k resistor
and a 0.10 F capacitor which are connected in
series. Calculate the rms voltage across the
capacitor if the rms voltage across the resistor is
20 V.

From

XC
tan
R

and

XC
1
tan

0.1
R CR

VC
tan
VR

VC
0.1
VR

VC 20 0.1 2.0 V
42

ii) RL in series circuit

R

VR

VL

VL

: phase angle
V supply voltage

VR

Phasor diagram

The voltage across the resistor VR and the capacitor

VL are V IR
R

VL IX L
43

ii) RL in series circuit

VR

VL

VL

VR

: phase angle
V supply voltage

Phasor diagram

The total p.d (supply voltage), V across R and L is

equal to the vector sum of VR and VL as shown in
the phasor diagram.
V 2 VR2 VL2

V IR IX L
2

V 2 I 2 R 2 X L2

and

X L L

V I R 2 2 L2
44

ii) RL in series circuit

VL

XL

VR

Phasor diagram

The impedance in RC
circuit,
Vrms I R L
Z

I rms
I
2

Z R 2 2 L2

2 2

Impedance diagram

From the phasor diagrams,

V leads I by
VL
tan
VR

IX L
tan
IR

XL
tan
R

or
L
tan
R
45

ii) RL in series circuit

Z
X L 2fL

R
f

0
Graph of Z against f

46

iii) RLC in series circuit

L

VL

VR

VC

47

VL

iii) RLC in series circuit

VL

VR

VC

VL VC

VC

VR

Phasor diagram

48

iii) RLC in series circuit

VL

VR

VC

VL

VL VC

VC

VR

Phasor diagram

The voltage across the inductor VL , resistor VR and

capacitor VC are VL IX L VR IR VC IX C

49

iii) RLC in series circuit

L

VL

VR

VC

VL

VL VC

VR

I
VC

Phasor diagram

The total p.d (supply voltage), V across L, R and C

is equal to the vector sum of VL ,VR and VC as
shown in the phasor diagram.
2
2
2
V VR VL VC
V IR IX L IX C
2

V 2 I 2 R2 X L X C

V I R X L XC
2

50

XL

iii) RLC in series circuit

VL

VL VC

VR

VC

XL XC

XC

Impedance diagram

Phasor diagram

The impedance in RLC

circuit,
Vrms I R X L X C
Z

I rms
I
2

Z R2 X L X C

From the phasor diagrams,

V leads I by
VL VC
tan
VR

XL XC
tan
R

I XL XC
tan
IR
1

C
tan
R 51

Resonance in RLC series circuit

Resonance is defined as the phenomenon that
occurs when the frequency of the applied voltage
is equal to the frequency of the LRC series circuit.
X C , X L , R, Z

The series resonance

circuit is used for
tuning a radio receiver.

XL f
R

fr

1
XC
f
f

Graph of impedance Z, inductive reactance

XL, capacitive reactance XC and resistance52R
with frequency.

Resonance in RLC circuit

X C , X L , R, Z

The graph shows that :

at low frequency, impedance Z
is large because 1/C is large.
at high frequency, impedance Z
is high because L is large.

XL f
R

fr

1
XC
f
f

at resonance, impedance Z is minimum (Z=R)

which is
2
X X
2
L

Z R X L XC

1
2f r L
2f r C
resonant
frequency

fr

Z min R 2 0

Z min R

2 LC

and I is maximum

I rms

Vrms Vrms

Z
R

53

54

EXERCISE

iii) RLC in series circuit

A series circuit contains a 50 resistor adjacent

to a 200 mH inductor attached to a 0.050F
capacitor, all connected across an ac generator
with a terminal sinusoidal voltage of 150 V
effective.
a)What is the resonant frequency ? (1.59 kHz)
b)What voltages will be measured by voltmeters
across each element at resonance ? (150V,6kV)
c) What is the voltage across the series
combination of the inductor and capacitor ?
a)Write the equation for the supply voltage at fr.
55

Example 21.3.6

iii) RLC in series circuit

A 200 resistor, a 0.75 H inductor and a capacitor

of capacitance C are connected in series to an
alternating source 250 V, fr = 600 Hz.
Calculate
a. the inductive reactance and capacitive
reactance when resonance is occurred.
b. the capacitance C.
c. the impedance of the circuit at resonance.
d. the current flows through the circuit at
resonance.
e. Sketch the phasor diagram.
56

Solution 21.3.6

iii) RLC in series circuit

R = 200 , L = 0.75 H ,Vrms = 250 V, f = 600 Hz.

a) X L L 2.83 k

X C 2.83 k

1
, C 93.9 nF
b) 2.83 x10
2fC
3

VL

c) Z = R = 200
d) I rms

Vrms Vrms

1.25 A
Z
R

e)

VR

VC
57

Exercise 21.3

iii) RLC in series circuit

A series RLC circuit has a resistance of 25.0 , a

capacitance of 50.0 F, and an inductance of
0.300 H. If the circuit is driven by a 120 V, 60 Hz
source, calculate
a)The total impedance of the circuit
b)The rms current in the circuit
c) The phase angle between the voltage and the
current.
64.9 , 1.85 A, 67.3o

58

SUBTOPIC :
21.4 Power and power factor (1 hour)
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
At the end of this lesson, students should
be able to :

a) Apply
i) average power, Pav I rmsVrms cos
ii)

instantaneous power, P IV

iii) power factor, cos

Pav
Pr

Pa I rmsVrms

in AC circuit consisting of R, RC, RL and RLC in

series
59

21.4 Power and power factor

In an ac circuit , the power is only dissipated by
a resistance, none is dissipated by inductance or
capacitance.
Therefore, the real power (Pr) that is used or gone
is given by the average power (Pave) i.e :
2

Pave I rms R Pr

Pave I rmsVR rms (1)

rms voltage
across resistor
60

(for RLC circuit)

X

X L XC

VL

VL VC
VC

VR

I
XC

Phasor diagram

Impedance diagram

From the diagrams above,

VR
R
cos
and cos
V
Z
(2) into (1)

Pave I rms Z cos

.. (2)

V=rms
supply
voltage

or
Pave I rmsV cos

Papparent Pa

Pave
cos
Pa
61

 The term cos is called the power factor.

The power factor (cos ) can vary from a
maximum of +1 to a minimum of 0.
When = 0o (cos =+1) ,the circuit is completely
resistive or when the circuit is in resonance (RCL).
When = +90o (cos =0) ,the circuit is completely
inductive.
When = -90o (cos =0) ,the circuit is completely
capacitive.
62

 The power factor can be expressed either as a

percentage or a decimal.
A typical circuit has a power factor of less than 1
(less than 100%).
Example :
A motor has a power factor of 80% and the motor
consumes 800 W to operate. In order to operate
properly, the motor must be supplied with more power
than it consumes i.e.1000 W .
power factor
(80%)

Pave
cos
Pa

800 W (consume)
1000 W (supply)
63

Example 21.4.1
An oscillator set for 500 Hz puts out a sinusoidal
voltage of 100 V effective. A 24.0 resistor, a
10.0F capacitor, and a 50.0 mH inductor in
series are wired across the terminals of the
oscillator.
a) What will an ammeter in the circuit read ?
b) What will a voltmeter read across each
element ?
c) What is the real power dissipated in the
circuit?
d) Calculate the power supply.
e) Find the power factor.
f) What is the phase angle?
64

Solution 21.4.1

f=500 Hz , V=100 V , R=24.0 , C=10.0F,

L=50.0 mH.

Vrms
a) I rms
784 mA
Z
VR IR 18.8 V
b)
VL IX L 123 V
VC IX C 24.9 V
c) Real power ?

Pave I rmsV cos

Pave 0.784 100 0.188

Pave 14.7 W Pr

65

d) Power supply, Pa I rmsVrms

0.784(100)
78.4 W

e) Power factor,
R
cos 0.188
Z
f)

cos 0.188

cos (0.188)
1

79.16

o
66

Exercise 21.4
1.
A coil having inductance 0.14 H and
resistance of 12 is connected to an alternating
source 110 V, 25 Hz. Calculate
a. the rms current flows in the coil.
b. the phase angle between the current and
supply voltage.
c. the power factor of the circuit.
d. the average power loss in the coil.
4.4 A, 61.3o , 0.48, 0.23 kW

67

Exercise 21.4
2.
A series RCL circuit contains a 5.10 F
capacitor and a generator whose voltage is
11.0
V. At a resonant frequency of 1.30 kHz t he power
dissipated in the circuit is 25.0 W. Calculate
a. the inductance
b. the resistance
c. the power factor when the generator
frequency is 2.31 kHz.

2.94 x 10-3 H , 4.84 , 0.163

68